Appendices

Appendix I: Case Study - Bosnia
Appendix II: Case Study - Rwanda

Appendix I: Case Study - Bosnia

The former Yugoslavia included six republics: Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia. Montenegro and Macedonia. Yugoslavia was the country with four languages (Slovene, Croatian, Serbian, Macedonian), two alphabets (Roman and Cyrillic), three religions (Orthodox, Catholics and Moslems) and five nationalities (Slovenes, Serbs, Croats, Montenegrans and Macedonians). The question of different nationalities has always been a problematic issue in Yugoslavia. A policy towards the creation of a unified Yugoslav socialist consciousness was pursued,⁷⁷ but since the Second World War there have been national tensions in the country.

⁷⁷ Vanessa Piggot, 'Education and Peaceful Ethnic Conflict Resolution in Yugoslavia and Successor States in Education in Russia, the Independent Slates and Eastern Europe. Vol.13. No.2. 1995.

The population of the republic of Bosnia-Herzegovina was the most diverse in the former Yugoslavia. Muslims were the largest group (about 40% out of the population). Serbians and Croatians also constituted a substantial population in the region. Villages and cities in Bosnia-Herzegovina were mixed communities.⁷⁸

⁷⁸ Martyn Rady, 'The Break-Up of Yugoslavia', Wayland, p.32.

The Education System Before the War

Prior to the outbreak of the war in Bosnia-Herzegovina in 1992, the education system in this area was relatively well-developed. All children were enrolled in eight-year compulsory education and the majority of them continued their secondary schooling in secondary schools of various types (e.g. gymnasium, vocational or trade schools). The gymnasium (general secondary school) delivered a four-year course with a highly academic curriculum. In some schools there were two parallel courses - for example, a scientific-mathematical branch and a socio-linguistic branch.⁷⁹ This type of secondary education was considered "to be prestigious. However, during the 1970s and early 1980s educational policy was directed towards the importance of vocational and professional subjects. The popularity of general secondary education, which was represented by the gymnasium, was reduced, and students were encouraged to study for specific professions in the last two years of secondary school.

⁷⁹ Nigel Grant, 'Society, Schools and Progress in Eastern Europe', 1969, p.316.

In the seventies, following a re-examination of the nationalities policy, more attention was paid to the ideology of an integrated society in the school curriculum. Education was considered one of the most important means to overcome disintegration. Under this new emphasis in educational policy schools were supposed to promote the idea of a unified Yugoslav socialist consciousness as well as a feeling of solidarity, fraternity and unity. There were also attempts to implement a common national curriculum throughout the country. However, a basic common syllabus was established only in such subjects as mathematics, science and technical subjects. The content of such disciplines as history or literature differed from region to region.⁸⁰

⁸⁰ For example, according to demands of Croatian history teachers and handbook writers, about 60 per cent of the syllabus had to be devoted to Croatian history and culture (Piggot, 1995).

There were four universities in Bosnia (Sarajevo, Mostar, Tuzla and Banja Luka) which included 46 institutes and faculties. About 30,000 students were enrolled in higher education (Some Facts on Bosnia and Herzegovina).

The control and administration of the education system were more flexible than in other East European countries. The system was characterised by strong regional variations: although basic educational policy was defined at federal level, it was freely interpreted by the republics, districts and even by different educational institutions.⁸¹ Each republic had its own ministry of education and defined its education budget. The individual ministries had the right to decide their own school curriculum so long as it coincided with general socialist principles. All pupils were entitled to instruction in their native language and it was the responsibility of the republics to provide learning opportunities for ethnic minorities in their mother tongue.⁸²

⁸¹ Grant, op. cit., 1969, pp. 304-305.
⁸² Piggot, op. cit.

Problems in the 1970s and 1980s

The tendency towards decentralisation became especially noticeable in the national policy of the former Yugoslavia in the 1970s and 80s. Accordingly in the constitution of 1974 the power of the central government was noticeably reduced and responsibility for decision-making was given to the six governments of the republics.⁸³ This process of decentralisation that developed as a reaction to economic stagnation and attempts to overcome it, was one of the reasons for further disparities between the republics.

⁸³ Rady, op. cit.

The gap between richer areas of the former Yugoslavia (such as Slovenia and Croatia) and the other poorer republics became more evident in the 1980s. For example, unemployment in Slovenia was 1.8%, whereas it was 29.1% in Kosovo. Slovenia contributed about 25 % to the federal budget. Politicians in Slovenia and Croatia blamed the lowering standards of living on having to subsidise the poorest regions.⁸⁴ On the other hand, many people in Serbia, Montenegro and Macedonia believed that they were entitled to more assistance from the richer areas.

⁸⁴ Piggot, op. cit., pp. 62-63.

By the beginning of the 1990s Yugoslavia was in a situation of deep economic and political crisis. Communist power collapsed in the 1990 elections. Nationalism then became the most significant force in the country.⁸⁵ This finally led to a worsening of relations between the republics and different ethnic groups within the republics and resulted in the outbreak of war.

⁸⁵ Rady, op. cit.

In 1991 Slovenia and Croatia declared their full independence. The Yugoslav Army invaded Slovenia, but pulled out in a couple of months. In August 1992 the Yugoslav army, consisting mainly of Serbian and Montenegran troops, entered Croatia.

The people of Bosnia and Herzegovina voted for independence in the referendum of late February 1992 with a 67% majority. On 6 April, 1992 the country was recognised as the independent Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It became a full member of the United Nations in May 1992, and in June 1992 was admitted as a member state to UNESCO.⁸⁶ The majority of Serbs in this region wanted Bosnia-Herzegovina to remain a part of Yugoslavia, together with the republics of Serbia and Montenegro, and the Serbian Democratic Party decided to establish an independent Serbian State in Bosnia-Herzegovina. As a consequence of that decision, Serbian gunmen started to take control in certain areas, receiving substantial assistance from Serbia. By April 1992 Bosnia-Herzegovina was in a situation of war.

⁸⁶ Srebren Dizdar, Permanent Secretary of Education, Ministry of Education, Bosnia-Herzegovina, 'Some Facts About Bosnia-Herzegovina'. IISE Document, 29.11.95.

The war in Bosnia has created noticeable ethnic fragmentation which has presented the education system with some of its most difficult challenges.⁸⁷

⁸⁷ 'Education in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Priorities for Recovery', Open Society Institute Education Programme Support Unit, 31.7.95 (Information from the Internet).

The Impact of the War on the Education System

Physical reconstruction

The war exerted a very negative influence on all parts of the republic's social life, and in particular on the education system, which has been affected greatly.

Many school buildings have been damaged by the war or vandalised, and they still need to be repaired. Other educational establishments are poorly maintained owing to a lack of resources. Classes have become overcrowded as an outcome of forced migration. There is a general shortage of basic school supplies, learning and teaching materials as well as heating and electricity. Currently educational institutions are working with UNICEF to conduct updated damage assessments. Many donor organisations such as IRC; the Soros Foundation, the European Union Administration of Mostar, UNESCO and Swiss Disaster Relief have also put much effort into school repair and reconstruction. UNPROFOR (the United Nations Protection Force) completed emergency repairs in 20 schools in Zagreb, Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina. Approximately six of them have been fully repaired and officially re-opened. One of the most serious constraints hindering reconstruction is obtaining access to all needy regions. Crossing former and current confrontation lines can be dangerous and costly. UNPROFOR has also assisted UNICEF and international NGOs in delivering school supplies and textbooks to isolated areas.⁸⁸

⁸⁸ Ibid.

A recent investigation prepared for the World Bank shows a devastating picture of the present situation in the education system of this area. According to this report, since 1991-1992 there has been no operating budget for education in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Shortages of basic educational materials and school supplies are acute. A great number of qualified teachers have been lost through migration, mobilisation into the military and war accidents. According to the Ministry of Education in Sarajevo only 254,000 children were in primary education (compared to 541,000 before the war). There were 167,000 pupils in secondary education, again about half of the previous number.⁸⁹

⁸⁹ UNICEF, Information from the Internet, 29.9.95.

The structure and foundations of the education system in Bosnia have been affected greatly since the outbreak of the war in April 1992. The most acute constraints faced by the system include shortages of school buildings and qualified teachers and a lack of educational materials as well as lack of security. Educational activities were terminated for almost a year in the areas where there was serious fighting and shelling (e.g. in Sarajevo). Some classes reopened during the spring of 1993, but by this time many educational establishments had been-destroyed and some of them had been occupied by military forces or had served as shelter for refugees and displaced persons. In these areas classes have sometimes been conducted in basements, private apartments or various make-shift structures. However, many schools in Bosnia have been forced to close repeatedly owing to heavy fighting and shelling.⁹⁰ A great number of children have received only irregular schooling.

⁹⁰ For example, in Sarajevo, classes resumed in September 1993, then, in November, they were compelled to close owing to renewed military action ('Education in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Priorities for Recovery', loc. cit.).

Higher educational establishments. Lack of educational materials. Assistance for refugee students.

Higher educational establishments have been experiencing similar problems. Shortage of buildings, laboratory equipment and other facilities has become a very serious constraint for their activities. In addition, university as well as public libraries have been devastated.⁹¹ There is an urgent need for the repair of old university buildings and for the construction of new ones. In September 1995 Germany and Italy together donated US $330,000 to help repair university buildings in Bosnia. The money was intended for emergency repairs of larger buildings that can house more than one faculty. Bosnia's universities are also in great need of supplies including books, computers and paper.⁹²

⁹¹ For example, in August, 1992, Bosnia's National and University Library was shelled and burned. Before the fire the library held 1.5 million volumes, including 155,000 very valuable and rare books; the country's national archives, periodicals and books published in Bosnia, the collections of the University of Sarajevo. (Andras Riedlmayer. 'Erasing the Past: Destruction of Libraries in Bosnia-Herzegovina'. Harvard University, Information from the Internet).

⁹² Burton Bollag. 'Bosnia's Universities See Hope as Academic Year Begins'. The Chronicle of Higher Education. No. 6, 6.10.95.

The possibility of scientific communication and co-operation with other higher educational institutions has been dramatically reduced. There is no or very little access to recent books and journals, information about international research projects and networks, seminars, conferences etc. As an outcome, many disciplines are no longer available, and some faculties have been transferred to other regions.⁹³

⁹³ For instance, two faculties of the University of Sarajevo continued their activities in Zenica. ('Education in Bosnia-Herzegovia, Priorities for Recovery', loc. cit.)

About 10,000 university graduates and 6,000 students have left the country.⁹⁴ In 1995 Austria (took in the largest concentration of Bosnian students, about 600. About 300 to 400 students from Bosnia are studying in the USA. Most of the rest are scattered among several European countries. The difficulties the refugee students face abroad are usually financial. In most countries they need to pay university fees and where the fees are paid they still need money for giving expenses. Some organisations - like the Soros Foundation - or individual countries provide grants to support students from Bosnia. Austria has established a special scholarship fund for refugee students from Bosnia (about US$ 500 per month for each student).⁹⁵

⁹⁴ Dizdar, op. cit.

⁹⁵ Burton Bollag, 'Bosnia's Academic Exiles: Students Who Fled Their War-torn Country Face New Challenges Abroad', The Chronicle of Higher Education. No. 35. 12.5.95.

Many students in Bosnia have been mobilised in the army or are working with different humanitarian organisations.

According to a UNESCO⁹⁶ consultant there are several important priority areas for reconstruction of the education system of Sarajevo University, including

· Repair and Reconstruction of the faculties. UNESCO estimates that US $56 million are needed alone for the reconstruction and refurbishment of the University of Sarajevo's faculties. Five faculties of the University have been totally destroyed, the others have been considerably or lightly damaged. One of the major problems faced by the University is lack of heating and safety. The Faculties of Fine Arts and Science, for example, have often been exposed to fire and shelling. Another significant problem is lack of buildings. Such Faculties as Agriculture and Electrical Engineering do not have permanent buildings of their own

· Materials for offices and laboratories. Apart from the reconstruction of the faculties, US $100,000 was required for office and laboratory equipment in the last academic year

· Provision of recent books and scientific journals

· Support for students. It is also very important to support those students who stayed in Sarajevo to continue their studies under extremely difficult conditions

· Exchange of professors and research staff as well as other forms of cooperation with universities abroad⁹⁷

⁹⁶ Suada Tozo-Waldmann, 'The University System in Bosnia-Herzegovina' (Information from the Internet).

⁹⁷ Before the war the University of Sarajevo had strong links with 32 universities abroad. With the beginning of the war these links were broken. Initial contact during the war was realised through a French association - a student movement for aid for Sarajevo with the aim of establishing inter-university co-operation. In 1994 links were established with 15 European universities. ('The University of Sarajevo during the war and in the post-war period' (Information from the Internet)).

With the assistance of the European Union a WUS (World University Service) office was established in Sarajevo in October 1994 with the aim of implementing the programme 'Academic Lifeline for Bosnia and Herzegovina'. Different projects have been implemented, including the Teaching Support Programme'⁹⁸ and a programme called 'Ideas for Actions'.⁹⁹

⁹⁸ The aim of the programme was to support professors and provide assistance in the Universities of Sarajevo. Tuzla and Mostar. It was implemented with the assistance of the European Union, Austria and The Netherlands (WUS in Sarajevo, Information from the Internet).

⁹⁹ The purpose of this programme has been to provide funds for scholarships for students in Bosnia-Herzegovina. This programme has been sponsored by the Austrian and Dutch governments (WUS in Sarajevo. Information from the Internet).

Lack of qualified teachers.

Since the beginning of the war, the education system in Bosnia has been suffering from an acute shortage of qualified teachers. Many teachers have left the country. Others were enrolled in the armed forces, died during the war or left their professions for more lucrative positions since teachers' salaries are extremely low, as outlined in Section 6.0 in the main text of our report. A successful pilot project was launched by the Soros Foundation in 1994. The aim of this project was to encourage teachers from primary and secondary schools to submit proposals for action that would improve the education system and teaching quality. Some 200 small grants were provided for projects in mathematics, drama, an, ecology and foreign languages. As a result of this project, teachers designed valuable programmes for children in different subjects. The grant was a very important stimulus for teachers who have been working without payment or for low salaries for several years.¹⁰⁰

¹⁰⁰ 'Education in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Priorities for Recovery', loc. cit.

Higher educational establishments in Bosnia also face severe lack of research and teaching staff. There is a serious 'brain drain' problem since the most efficient university staff have better career prospects abroad. According to official data. about 60% of the university researchers or staff closely associated with scientific work are no longer doing their research in Bosnian educational establishments.¹⁰¹ In the University of Sarajevo, of approximately 1,500 leaching staff before the war. only about 900 remain.

¹⁰¹ Dizdar. op. cit.

Assistance to the Ministry of Education. Provision of textbooks and educational materials and curriculum development.

In the Republic of Bosnia-Herzegovina the Ministry of Education. Science. Culture and Sport has continued to exist under the very difficult circumstances imposed by the war. Similar ministries have begun to emerge in the other cantons (regions), but their resources are very limited.¹⁰² During 1993 and 94 the Ministry of Education has developed through the Pedagogical Institute in Sarajevo detailed curriculum revision¹⁰³ and textbooks for the schools. In 1994-95 the Ministry of Education succeeded in publishing 80 new textbook titles (1.8 million copies) which have been distributed free of charge to pupils in Bosnia, and currently a further 73 titles are planned. Different organisations such as UNICEF,¹⁰⁴ UNESCO, the Soros Foundation and some NGOs have provided notable emergency assistance to the Ministry of Education in textbook production. At the request of the Ministry of Education and the Pedagogical Institute UNICEF sponsored a conference that was concerned with education policy and the financing of the education system.

¹⁰² In Tuzla. for instance, the Ministry was formed in October 1994. and five persons among the staff had responsibility for education along with a small Pedagogical Institute. (Seth Spaulding & Rob Fuderich, The Education Sector in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Possible Long-term Options for Education Policy. Planning and Development Assistance'. 5.11.95 (Information from the Internet).

¹⁰³ The Pedagogical Institute wrote a very detailed three-volume curriculum revision document that included the curriculum plans and detailed programmes. Authors then developed papers following these plans and detailed programmes. The manuscripts were submitted to a competition and the winning papers were selected by evaluation committees that included three persons for each subject, one from the Ministry, one expert from a university and one experienced teacher (ibid.).

Currently, education in Bosnia-Herzegovina as well as in the other states of the former Yugoslavia reflects 'national' policies. National history, language and literature have become significant parts of the school curriculum. In 1994 the Pedagogical Institute of the Ministry of Education made important changes in the curriculum. The main objective was to include such new disciplines as Bosnian history, culture and language.¹⁰⁵ The problem of the language of instruction in schools has been significant for the promotion of the new education policy. Within Bosnia, people who speak the same dialect of Serbo-Croat describe the language they speak as Croatian, Serbian or Bosnian, according to their nationality. Before the war Serbo-Croat or Croato-Serbian was used in Bosnia, Croatia and Serbia with some regional pronunciation variations. Currently there are three 'separate' languages in Bosnia. The differences between these languages are not very noticeable and people have no difficulties in understanding one another. However, the Croats are updating the vocabulary of the Croatian language. At the same time, the Bosnians are emphasising the differences of the Bosnian language which now replaces Serbo-Croat in secondary schools.

¹⁰⁴ UNICEF funded the production of mathematics textbooks for first and second grade students. It has also sponsored curriculum guides for teachers working with children with disabilities and special needs ('Education in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Priorities for recovery', loc. cit.).

¹⁰⁵ 'Education in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Priorities for recovery'. loc. cit.

Severe financial constraints continue to be a significant obstacle for the Ministry of Education's activities. During the war. there were no regular funds for educational development and generally teachers have been working as volunteers.

Throughout Bosnia UNICEF has been distributing primary school and pre-school materials as well as teacher aid kits. In the Zenica area. for example, 84,000 pupils were each given an education kit including notebooks, pencils, erasers, sharpeners and rulers.¹⁰⁶

¹⁰⁶ UNICEF, Information from the Internet, 29.9.95.

Displaced children.

There are an estimated 1.327, 000 displaced persons in Bosnia and many of them are children. As a result of the circumstances of the war and the location of occupied territories most of these displaced persons moved from the rural areas to the cities. Consequently, the displaced population face difficulties in adjusting to life in new areas. This problem exerts a very negative impact on education, as these children sometimes do not have access to education. It is essential to establish programmes to improve acceptance of displaced children in communities and schools.¹⁰⁷

¹⁰⁷ 'Education in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Priorities for Recovery', loc. cit.

Psychological reconstruction and confidence building.

A unique radio programme, 'Radio Zid', has been created to provide some education for children in Bosnia. This station broadcasts a daily 90-minute music, discussion, and educational programme, including such topics as mental health, conflict resolution and mine awareness. Children can also act out dramatised roles to help them cope with war-related problems. UNICEF has been supporting these programmes since June 1993 as well as delivering tapes to Mostar, Gorazde, Tuzla, Vitez and Visoko. In Mostar a similar radio programme is being run with the assistance of the University of London.

Psycho-social programmes are being carried out with UNICEF assistance throughout Bosnia. They are intended for children who have been traumatised by the shelling, loss of parents or the witnessing of atrocities. UNICEF has distributed special 'psycho-social kits' that contain instructions for care providers as well as children's games, water-colours, etc.¹⁰⁸

¹⁰⁸ UNICEF. Information from the Internet. 29.9.95.

Adult educators also suffer from psychological stress. It was found that some 80% of teachers have experienced some sort of psychological trauma. War-disabled people need special attention. The situation is worsened by the fact that many experienced psychiatrists have left the country. One of UNESCO's emergency projects. 'HOPE for Sarajevo' has been concerned with the provision of psychotherapeutic care and educational-professional training for war-disabled young people and young amputees. This project has included the training of mostly young and inexperienced Bosnian therapists and doctors to enable them to carry out the effective physical and psychological rehabilitation of war-disabled people. 'HOPE for Sarajevo' has been affiliated with the UNHCR relief programme for Bosnia-Herzegovina since October 1993.¹⁰⁹

¹⁰⁹ HOPE *87, 'HOPE for Sarajevo', in co-operation with UNESCO, 1994.

Conclusion

Currently Bosnia's education system is in great need of assistance. With the help of UNICEF and other donor agencies the new national and local authorities have to respond to such urgent needs as repair of school buildings, promotion of basic educational materials, emergency teacher training and revision of textbooks, as well as the development of a curriculum open to peace and tolerance.

Donor aid for the education system in Bosnia-Herzegovina should include assistance not only for short-term but also for the long-term development in education so important for the future evolution of a country. In November 1994 Seth Spaulding (University of Pittsburgh) and Rob Fuderich (UNICEF) conducted a special analysis of the education sector in Bosnia-Herzegovina with the purpose of helping the Ministry of Education explore medium- and long-term educational issues and preparing a brief sector review that would be of help to donor agencies. The aim of this mission was to anticipate future developments of the education system in Bosnia, to produce certain recommendations, and to identify possible technical cooperation projects involving:

· policy, planning, management and management information systems
· curriculum and textbook planning, innovation and development
· student assessment and examination development
· teacher education planning, innovation and development
· technical and vocational education innovation and development
· a university planning, development and administration project;
· possible options for the privatisation of education ¹¹⁰

¹¹⁰ Spaulding, op. cit.

It is very important to implement these recommendations through strong projects. For example, the University of Pittsburgh/UNICEF programme in educational policy, planning and technical co-operation in Bosnia-Herzegovina was initiated in 1995. This programme has been designed as sustainable, integrated and interactive. One of its main aims has been to facilitate the transition to long-range planning, management and administration in education.¹¹¹

¹¹¹ E. Gottlieb & L. Cohen, 'Emergency response versus sustainable support. The Case of Teacher Education in Bosnia', paper presented at the 40th Annual Comparative and International Education Society Conference, Williamsburg, VA, 6-10 March, 1996.

Appendix II: Case Study - Rwanda

Rwanda Fact File. 112
Population 1993	7.8 million
Population in August 1995	4.8 million
Killed in genocide/war	1.0 million
Refugees outside country	2.0 million
Children under 16 in 1993	3.7 million
Primary school children in 1993	1.1 million
Children orphaned/lost/separated	900, 000
Children under 17 in the army	4.000
Children in detention	1,028

¹¹² TES, 18.8.95, p. 8.

Background to the Social Upheaval in Rwanda 1990-1994

On 1 October 1990,4000¹¹³ Batutsi refugees calling themselves the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF),¹¹⁴ deserted from President Musereni's army in Uganda and attacked northern Rwanda from Uganda; almost four years later, on 6 July 1994, a RPF-dominated government took over in Kigali, the capital of Rwanda. Although the rebels declared initially in 1990 that the political reform process in the country was inadequate and demanded that President Habyarimana as well as his counterpart from Burundi should go, many believe that the reason was simpler - namely, an attempt to take over the government of the country.¹¹⁵

¹¹³ Statistics vary in terms of the number of soldiers involved. David Waller speaks of 4000 soldiers in Rwanda Which Way Now? Oxfam UK, 1993, while the TES of 18.9. 95 mentions 10,000.

¹¹⁴ RPF is a creation of the Tutsi refugees who fled Rwanda, mainly between 1959 and 1966. Over the years the desire to return to Rwanda of the 600,000 refugees, including their descendants in Uganda, Burundi, Zaire and Tanzania remained strong (Historical Perspective: Some Explanatory Factors, The Nordic Africa Institute, December 1995, p.34). The political change in Uganda after 1986 and the involvement of Tutsis in the consolidation process provided a good framework for the planning of military innovations.

¹¹⁵ For a detailed analysis of the background of the war, see Tor Sellström & Lennart Wohlgemuth. 'The Tragedy in Rwanda in a Historical Perspective: Some Explanatory Factors', The Nordic Africa Institute. December 1995; Napoleon Abdulai (ed.), Genocide in Rwanda. Background and Current Situation (Africa Research and Information Centre, London, 1994).

After spectacular successes during the first week of the war, the RPF met resistance from government troops, aided by France, Belgium and Zaire.¹¹⁶ Subsequently, the war turned into a protracted guerrilla conflict, and between November 1990 and July 1992 the rebels gradually took a strip of land along a length of Rwanda's border with Uganda. A cease-fire was negotiated in Arusha,¹¹⁷ Tanzania in July 1992, but the ensuing 'Arusha negotiations' dragged on interminably, owing to fighting between parties.

¹¹⁶ Waller, op.cit.

¹¹⁷ For discussion of the Arusha process, see Tor Sellström & Lennart Wohlgemuth, 'The Tragedy in Rwanda in a Historical Perspective: Some Explanatory Factors', The Nordic Africa Institute, December 1995, pp. 43-49

When power-sharing arrangements were finally agreed in January 1993, the extremist Bahutu Party, the Comité pour la Défense de la République (CDR), emerged without any cabinet, posts and, together with elements of the National Republican Movement for Democracy (MRND),¹¹⁸ some of its members responded by killing political opponents and Batutsi in Gisenyi and Ruhengeri. As a result, in February, the RPF - then perhaps 12,000 strong -renewed its attacks and doubled its territory in three days.¹¹⁹ The conflict in Rwanda that led to war and genocide can be described as a 'struggle between an increasingly worn-out regime and its challengers'.¹²⁰ The one-party system was seen more and more as the obstacle rather than the road to further development.

¹¹⁸ MRND is the successor to the National Revolutionary Movement for Development - the only party permitted to operate between 1976 and 1990. Its founder and President, Habyarimana, dominated the political scene for approximately 20 years (Waller, op.cit., p. 11).

¹¹⁹ Waller, op.cit., p. 11.

¹²⁰ Sellström, op.cit., p. 36.

On 6 April 1994, the plane crash in which the President of Rwanda, Juvenal Habyarimana was killed unleashed waves of massacres¹²¹ and within a period of three months at least 500, 000 people were killed.¹²² The first target of the genocide were Tutsi men and boys, regardless of age. Educated Tutsi men and women were particularly targeted as the university was 'cleansed'.

¹²¹ For discussion on the possible causes and structures behind the genocide, see Sellström, p. 54.
¹²² Sellström, op.cit., pp. 53-58.

As of 18 July 1994 the new government of the RPF had taken over the leadership of Rwanda, a country now in shock and complete economic and educational disruption. With an economy that has virtually collapsed and nearly all institutions of local and central government destroyed, the task for the reconstruction of education seems daunting. Sellström and Wohlgemuth confirm that 'the current political situation gives little hope for a peaceful long-term development of Rwanda'.¹²³

¹²³ Ibid., p.63.

Inescapably, the war has had a devastating impact on the Rwandan school system. Before the 1990-1991 civil war and subsequent genocide in 1994, Rwanda was regarded as one of Africa's educational achievements, with more than 60 per cent of children in primary school, and a government which spent 22 per cent of its national budget on primary education.¹²⁴ Unfortunately, some of the factors which incited the war can also be detected in the school system: only 6 per cent of children could enter secondary education. The frustration was heightened by a biased quota system for secondary and further education, aptly spelled out by an Oxfam analyst: 'No one feels they are being treated fairly. Education is falling between quality and scope... it is neither democratic nor equipping the student with skills... It is no longer a guaranteed passport to better life'.¹²⁵ The reconstruction of education in Rwanda should therefore address an extremely broad range of issues that will be discussed in the ensuing section.

¹²⁴ John Vidal, 'Life After Death', Guardian Education. 18.4.95, p.6.
¹²⁵ Ibid.

What Needs to be Done in Terms of Educational Reconstruction?

According to a survey of the literature on educational reconstruction processes currently underway in Rwanda, different interrelated phases can be identified, namely:

· an emergency and post-emergency phase which dealt mainly with displaced persons within Rwanda, as well as those who had fled to neighbouring countries after the genocide in mid-1994 ¹²⁶

· immediate short-term educational needs for people who are currently resettling in Rwanda

· long-term educational reconstruction in order to stabilise the country and provide a skilled labour force in order to enhance economic growth

¹²⁶ For the priorities of educational provision in this emergency phase, see Frauke Riller, 'Regional Emergency Education Mission: Kenya, Tanzania, Rwanda, Zaire (27 October - 24 November 1994)'. Mission Report UNHCR. December 1994.

Physical Reconstruction

A widespread outcome of the war and genocide in Rwanda is the destruction of the buildings. When the Minister of Education in the new government, Pierre-Céléstrin Rwigma, took office in mid-1994, reminders of the war were evident in his office building -huge holes were in the walls; he had no windows and his garden was strewn with files; there were only two chairs in the ministry, and no paper, money, transport, or records.¹²⁷

¹²⁷ Vidal, op.cit.

The expansion of schooling is crucial, especially in terms of secondary schooling, as only 6 percent of the primary school leavers were privileged enough to enter secondary school. The new government has prioritised the further increase of schooling - when and if resources permit.¹²⁸ In realising this, the government admits that the current expensive boarding school system for secondary schooling is no longer a viable and sustainable model for the country's demand for skilled labour, but new neighbourhood schools would have to be built in several areas.

¹²⁸ TES, 18.8.95, p. 8.

In the current situation, the emphasis for physical reconstruction is on the rebuilding of damaged schools. Many secondary schools are still too badly damaged and remain closed, whilst those that have opened experience a shortage of laboratories and other teaching equipment. Four vocational schools that have been badly damaged are currently being renovated with German aid.¹²⁹

¹²⁹ Ibid.

Ideological Reconstruction

The reform of Rwanda's school system enjoys priority from the new government which was formed on 18 July 1995 and which condemns the system for encouraging many of the intolerant attitudes which led to the genocide in mid-1994 and helped to establish the single-party rule of the former regime. The Ministry of Education is well aware that projects which encourage the democratisation of education as well as education for peace are paramount. UNESCO has been approached by the Ministry to assist with programmes that will facilitate and promote education for peace and tolerance. Moreover, the Ministry wants UNESCO, in co-operation with educationists in Rwanda and other agencies and experts, to devise a long-term curriculum in which democratic principles are embedded.¹³⁰

¹³⁰ UNESCO, interview, 10.5.96.

One of the first decisions that had been taken by the new Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education was the suspension of subjects such as history and political education or civics, because of the biased perspective of the teaching in those areas of the curriculum. Dr Gerard Ngendahimana, a civil servant responsible for the implementation of these reforms, confirms that work is currently being done in introducing a history curriculum free from bias, stressing that different ethnic groups should live together peacefully. Owing to the country's dependence on foreign aid, reforms that are brought in will be carefully examined by the international community. The government is also looking at the reconstruction of teaching methods, and plans to lay more emphasis on the skills of critical thinking. Plans are being made to teach children to question authority creatively and take responsibility in democratic decision-making processes.¹³¹

¹³¹ TES, 18.8.95, p. 8.

An important step in ideological reconstruction, eradicating obstacles towards the path to reconciliation, is the suspension of a most controversial selection process for secondary places, resulting in the so-called 'national' policy under the new government.¹³² The selection process is now on the basis of a purely academic selection admissions system.

¹³² Competition for places in Rwanda's secondary schools, and highly selective boarding schools was fierce. The 'national' policy allowed the ministry to set quotas according to ethnic, regional and socio-economic background. This discriminated against the Tutsi and urban families and favoured the Hutu-dominated rural areas (TES. 18.8.95, p. 8).

Moreover, national identity cards do not state the ethnic background of Rwandans, and children are encouraged to see their identity foremost as Rwandans. Thus education in which a redefinition of identity is to the fore should be encouraged by teachers and fostered through the curriculum.

UNICEF's programme co-ordinator, Thomas Bergman, warns that one of the daunting tasks the new government needs to deal with in the process of ideological reconstruction is securing stability within the country, which would in turn assist the process of economic recovery. He asserts that Rwanda is still threatened by an army in exile which is undergoing military training in Zaire at the moment. In addition, the possibility of further ethnic unrest between Hutu and Tutsi in certain areas such as Burundi impact on the prevailing political situation. Bergman underlines the fact that the new Rwandan government's chances of success 'depend on its ability to bring about reconciliation after the horrors of last year [1994]. The role of the schools, and a commitment to equal opportunities will be vital'. He further emphasises that 'the government has to be sure that there are no books, there are no documents, there is no training, no teaching, where there is any discrimination'.¹³³

Psychological reconstruction

A prevalent feature which the literature on Rwanda reveals is the acute psychological trauma that still prevails among children. The genocide which commenced in April 1994 has been described by many as among the worst for such a short period of time.¹³⁴ A circumstance that exacerbates the situation is that survivors of the genocide reported that in some cases teachers murdered children who attended their own classes.¹³⁵ Moreover, schools were sought out as sanctuaries at the height of the genocide, only to become the scene of some of the worst massacres. The tragedy has therefore left deep scars in pupils' attitudes and perceptions of the schooling system. UNESCO and UNDP, as well as various NGOs, are introducing special trauma programmes. A special children's training centre and school near Butare has been opened for traumatised child soldiers who have witnessed violent scenes of war and seen mass graves.¹³⁶

¹³³ TES, 18.8.95, p 8.

¹³⁴ Sellslröm, op.cit., p. 53.

¹³⁵ Jeremy Sutcliffe, 'Tragedy in the Heart of Darkness. TES, 18.8.95, p.7.

¹³⁶ Jeremy Sutcliffe, 'Traumatised Child Soldiers Return to School, TES, 18.8.95, p.7.

There is also a need to train teachers to deal with traumatised children, since many have behavioural problems. Agathe, a teacher in Rwanda states: 'What children need most is a routine with kindness and sensible discipline... they have nightmares or won't talk to anyone. We are learning as we go how to help them'.¹³⁷

¹³⁷ Guardian. 1.6.95, p. 15.

Provision of Materials and Curricular Reconstruction

The launching by UNICEF, together with UNESCO, of an emergency teaching pack (TEP) to aid in the provision of materials has played a vital role in reconstructing primary schools in Rwanda. In addition to this 'mobile classroom', which includes slates, pencils and copybooks provided for almost 600,000 children, UNICEF has given a £20 'sign up' payment to 15,000 teachers and volunteers as an incentive to teach in primary schools.¹³⁸ UNESCO has shipped in 9,000 cases and trained a core group of teachers to use the TEP. For most Rwandan children, the basic education which is provided by means of the emergency teaching pack is the only education they receive one year after the war (See Section 5.2 of our main report).

¹³⁸ Vidal, op.cit.

The Ministry of Education, in partnership with UNESCO and other agencies, is currently working on long-term curriculum reform¹³⁹ initiatives" and they meet regularly for conferences and workshops in Rwanda.¹⁴⁰

¹³⁹ Detailed discussions on curriculum reform can be found in Gwang-Chol Chang in 'La Réhabilitation et la Réconstruction du Système Educatif au Rwanda' UNESCO, 1994.

¹⁴⁰ UNESCO, interview, 10.5.96.

Human Resources

The new Rwandan government, which has embarked on the process of opening primary schools since September 1994, is experiencing a critical shortage of skilled teachers. It is estimated that approximately 60 per cent of Rwandan teachers have died or fled to neighbouring countries.¹⁴¹ This is exacerbated by the fact that Rwanda had experienced a shortage of skilled teachers even before the war and genocide between October 1990 and April 1994. Only 61 per cent of primary teachers were qualified, with the remainder of the teaching staff being mainly older children with secondary education. The figure since 1994 has fallen to 48 percent.

¹⁴¹ Vidal, op.cit.

A vital source of qualified new teachers since 1994 has come from Tutsi refugee families who, owing to pressure from the Ugandan government, have repatriated to Rwanda after the war. Most of these new teachers were educated in Uganda, where 250,000 Rwandans have settled after previous persecutions dating back to 1959. Their coming to Rwanda helps to ensure that children in some primary and all secondary schools will be offered the chance to learn English and French.¹⁴²

¹⁴² TES, 18-8.95, p8.

Realising the vital long-term need of human resource development, the new government is planning a programme for teacher training which would be funded by the World Bank, with assistance from the United Nations and various other agencies.¹⁴³ However, the dire shortage of skills illustrates the fact that progress in effective teacher training will be a slow and cumbersome process.

¹⁴³ Ibid.

Population and Demography

Following the genocide in Rwanda, approximately 2 million Rwandans fled to neighbouring countries, especially to Tanzania and Zaire.¹⁴⁴ Since a substantial proportion of the refugee population consists of school-age children, education provision became paramount. The emphasis on the right of refugee children to education and the urgency of providing it as early as practicable was clearly stated by UNHCR's Executive Committee (EXCOM). The 'Ngara'-model in which the senior education officers of UNESCO-PEER, together with UNHCR, UNICEF, GTZ and NGO colleagues, formed an Emergency Education team in Rwandan refugee camps in Tanzania was implemented, which rested on the policy of education for repatriation, i.e. the use of the curriculum of the country of origin and refugee teachers, pending clarification of durable solutions. The Ngara model includes

· inter-agency collaboration
· data collection
· a phased approach
· teacher re-professionalisation¹⁴⁵

¹⁴⁴ For more information on the effect of the war on refugees, see Sellström, (op.cit.), pp. 59-61.
¹⁴⁵ For a full report on the Ngara-model in terms of education in refugee camps, see Riller, loc.cit.

In responding to the educational needs of refugees outside as well as displaced persons within Rwanda, UNICEF joined UNESCO in its efforts to develop an interim link between the absence of schooling and the resumption of regular schooling. The Teacher Emergency Pack (TEP) is utilised as an emergency and immediate response mechanism in the emergency phase.

Another growing concern according to Sutcliffe is the vast number of children still detained, a year after the war has ended, in overcrowded jails in Rwanda.¹⁴⁶ Although children in prison camps such as Kigali receive basic education, they live in cramped and sordid conditions. Rwanda's judicial system is still being rebuilt, and a number of children's cases are under review, with the process being sped up by lawyers employed by the children's charity UNICEF.

¹⁴⁶ Sutcliffe reports that more than 50,000 people are in prison, awaiting trial in 13 jails designed to take only 12.000. The worst overcrowding is at Gitarama prison, where ten prisoners are herded into space created for only one person. A total of 1,028 children are in prison in the country, including 193 who have not been charged, Sutcliffe, loc. cit., pp. 7-9.

Spry-Leverton¹⁴⁷ states that a big influx of street children is expected in Rwanda's capital Kigali as some of the 100,000 children orphaned return after the war. Estimates of the children sleeping rough range from 600 to 4,000, depending on whether the children are documented or not. There is concern among relief agencies that the adults who are accompanying these children back to Rwanda will not be able to manage to feed them in the expensive city Kigali, and might thus abandon some of them. However, UNICEF, in partnership with the UNHCR, Save the Children and other relief agencies, is working with the Ministry of Rehabilitation in Rwanda to cope with the expected mounting numbers. Likewise, the Centre d'Acceuil, or Welcome Centre, funded by Caritas,¹⁴⁸ a Catholic aid agency, has established three huts which function as a job-skills training centre for street children. Children participate in recreational activities as well as learning job-skills such as carpentry, horticulture and tailoring.

¹⁴⁷ Information from the Internet, 22.3.96.

¹⁴⁸ The first centre to cater for street children opened in 1988 funded by Caritas, and by 1993 Caritas was assisting two more homes, including a residential home for girls accommodating 30 boarders.

Organisational Frameworks for Reconstruction

Partnership over the past year among aid organisations, foreign expertise and the new government in Rwanda has made significant progress in addressing the short- and long-term educational needs in Rwanda.

The UNHCR report¹⁴⁹ on the regional emergency education mission to Rwanda states that 'an unusual degree of inter-agency collaboration "was cultivated in Ngara. This especially applied to three UN agencies - UNHCR, UNICEF and GTZ - whose mandates encompass the relevant educational sector. The Ngara experience also shows that for effective collaboration with NGOs it is advisable to deal with a limited number of NGOs as implementing partners and accord them definite responsibilities in the education field. Thus, while each NGO handled education as part of its broader framework for community services within its designated refugee camp, the education sector was given considerable autonomy, which furthered the opportunities for inter-agency collaboration. The approval of the Tanzanian government in legitimating and approving the educational programmes run by various NGOs proved to be vital.

¹⁴⁹ Riller, op.cit.

In order jointly to appraise the educational challenges in the emergency and post-conflict context in Rwanda, senior educationists and experts from UNESCO and UNHCR headquarters met at the UNICEF-Geneva Office from 6-7 October 1994.¹⁵⁰

¹⁵⁰ For a further outline assessing educational needs and programmes that have been implemented in certain refugee camps, see Riller, loc. cit.

Subsequently, in 1995 major conferences and workshops in co-operation with the government and under the auspices of UNESCO, in which various NGOs and relief agencies have been involved, addressed the short- and especially long-term needs for educational reconstruction in Rwanda.¹⁵¹

¹⁵¹ UNESCO, interview, 10.5.96.

Conclusion

As several political commentators have underlined, the current scope of the political situation in Rwanda leaves little hope for peaceful long-term development. In a seminar in Uppsala in early 1995, Catherine Newbury summarised the preconditions for reconciliation, mentioning the following key points that are imperative for the country's future:¹⁵²

· end the legacy of violence and culture of impunity
· material reconstruction
· broad political solutions, including orderly repatriation of refugees
· reconstitution of the social fabric

¹⁵² Sellström, op.cit., pp. 63-64.

In all of these daunting challenges, education will play a major role. Thus, the prioritising of educational reconstruction should remain both a short- and long-term goal of the new government in partnership with aid organisations and the wider international community.