As stated in the MBTOC's 1994 report,
"there is no single alternative to methyl bromide in all of its wide range of uses".
However, technically feasible alternatives are either already available or at an advanced stage of development for more than 90 % of its applications (Schonfield et al., 1995). Delaying action by demanding for further research into alternatives is in most cases not justified. However, country- or crop-specific application methods need to be developed for every situation and the economic viability has to be carefully investigated for all alternatives. Extension services will have to be very knowledgeable so that an economic balance can be maintained during the transition period. It is presently not easy to find economically viable and efficient substitutes for MB against certain soil -borne viruses and a few other soil applications, in the fumigation of buildings such as mills (alternative gases may corrode electric installations) and in certain quarantine treatments.
Under these circumstances the Integrated Pest Management (IPM) approach developed by GTZ over the past 20 years or more proves to be of vital importance. The GTZ concept of IPM is identical to the one described in Agenda 21:
"Integrated pest management, which combines biological control, host plant resistance and appropriate farming practices and minimises the use of pesticides, is the best option for the future, as it guarantees yields, reduces costs, is environmentally friendly and contributes to the sustainability of agriculture."
Wherever the term IPM is used in this publication, it is understood according to the definition in Agenda 21. For stored products, a slightly modified definition applies. The term "appropriate farming practices" may be replaced by "appropriate post-harvest practices based on preventive measures". Further details are given in section 3.4.3.
Taking into account the available alternatives, GTZ is promoting rapid substitution for most MB applications. Thus, the year 2015 is the deadline for phasing out most MB uses in agriculture in German development cooperation partner countries. As the compatibility at farm level must be maintained by all means, economic considerations will play a major role in introducing alternatives.
Existing or potential alternatives have been extensively dealt with in the 1994 MBTOC report and in specialised publications such as the book "The Methyl Bromide Issue" by Bell et al. (1996) or in the studies by Schonfield et al. (1995) and Miller (1996). Widely used alternatives in A5 countries include steam treatments in cut flower production in Brazil and Colombia, solarisation for melonsmelon melon and cucumberscucumber cucumber in Brazil, Jordan and Morocco and soilless culture of strawberries in Indonesia and Singapore (TEAP Vol. 1, 1997).
According to the 1997 TEAP report, many economically viable alternatives are currently in use and the cost effectiveness increases over time. Alternatives with the least environmental impact like IPM and solarisation are the most economically sound. In some cases, yields increased significantly with alternative treatments. It is recommended to read carefully the remarks concerning health and environmental hazards mentioned as peculiarities of several of the chemical alternatives.
The editors do not exclude substances from their compendium that are commonly listed as alternatives but they want to make clear that including a product in the list of alternatives does not necessarily mean a recommendation. Chapter 3 is intended to be a more or less objective overview, whereas in chapter 6 some recommendations on certain techniques, products or groups of products are made. In order to demonstrate that MB can actually be replaced in most cases, the most promising alternatives are highlighted on the following pages.
Application: |
Liquid, injected into the soil. The soil should be covered by a plastic film or the surface should be compacted physically to prevent quick gas release |
Crops: |
Flowers, ornamentals, tobacco, strawberry, tomato, etc. |
Target organisms: |
Arthropods, some plant parasitic nematodes, fungi, some weeds |
Peculiarities: |
Does not penetrate deep into the soil. Comparatively poor effect on nematodes. Problems concerning product stability and corrosion; risk of contaminating groundwater. The success of the treatment depends on the application method, soil conditions and climatic factors |
Countries: |
Belgium, USA |
Sources: |
De Ceuster & Pauwels (1993), MBTOC (1994) |
Application: |
Liquid, applied to the moist soil by injection, drip or sprinkler irrigation or sprayed on the surface prior to tilling. The active ingredient is MITC. For soil sealing see 3.1.1.1 |
Crops: |
Flowers, ornamentals, tobacco, strawberries, tomato es, etc. |
Target organisms: |
Fungi, insects, nematodes, weeds (narrow spectrum of activity) |
Peculiarities: |
The success of the treatment is dependent upon correct application procedures, soil conditions and climatic factors. A 2 - 3-week plant -back period is required. In laboratory tests, birth defects have been caused to animals. |
Economics: |
Product cost is relatively low, but depends on the local market conditions. Additional equipment is required that increases the cost of the treatment |
Countries: |
Belgium, Brazil, Germany, South Africa, USA |
Sources: |
Civerolo (1993), De Ceuster (1993), Miller (1996), EPA (1997), Rodriguez-Kabana (1997), TEAP (1997) |
Application: |
Granule, incorporated into the soil by roto-tilling. For soil sealing see 3.1.1.1 |
Crops: |
Flowers, ornamentals, tobacco, strawberry, tomato, banana, etc. |
Target organisms: |
Fungi, nematodes, insects, weeds |
Peculiarities: |
Breakdown products are MITC, carbon bisulphide and formaldehyde. Does not penetrate deep into the soil. The success of the treatment is dependent upon the application method, soil conditions and climatic factors (less effective against the pest range of warmer regions). Dazomet requires a 60-day waiting period for re-entry in cool soil |
Economics: |
Cost depends on the local market conditions. A cost increase is to be expected, partially caused by initial decreases in yield of up to 10 % |
Countries: |
Belgium, Brazil, Germany, Philippines, USA |
Sources: |
Civerolo (1993), De Ceuster (1993), Miller (1996), Rodriguez-Kabana (1997), TEAP (1997) |
Application: |
Liquid, injected into the soil followed by soil sealing |
Crops: |
Cucumberscucumber cucumber, egg plant s, strawberries, tobacco, tomato es, peppers |
Target organisms: |
Nematodes, some fungi and weeds |
Effects: |
Nematicide with limited fungicidal and herbicidal activity; growth-stimulating effect |
Peculiarities: |
Often used in combination with chloropicrin (USA), metam sodium, etc. is suspected to be a human carcinogen |
Economics: |
Product per unit costs are substantially higher than for MB, decrease in yields may occur |
Countries: |
Belgium, South America, USA, Zimbabwe; not allowed in Germany (since 1991) |
Sources: |
Civerolo (1993), De Ceuster (1993), Miller (1996), EPA (1997), TEAP (1997), Visbeck (1997) |
Application: |
Used in nurseries and field settings. Liquid, injected into the soil followed by soil sealing; diffuses well through the soil |
Crops: |
Strawberries |
Target organisms: |
Soil -borne fungi and other pathogens, some arthropods |
Effects: |
Toxic to root-destroying fungi. Weak nematicide and herbicide |
Peculiarities: |
Usually used in combination with MB, 1,3-D or other chemicals. 6-week plant -back period |
Economics: |
Actual costs associated with applying chloropicrin will be similar to those for MB |
Countries: |
Belgium, USA (California); not allowed in Germany since 1980 |
Sources: |
De Ceuster (1993), EPA (1996), TEAP (1997) |
In all the above-mentioned techniques, mixtures of the fumigants, for example 1,3-D + MITC or 1,3-D + chloropicrin or ethylene dibromide (EDB) + MITC or EDB + chloropicrin, have been used on a variety of crops in North America and are short-term alternatives that are already available. Some mixtures can be compared in their effect to MB. The registration of mixtures could be a problem in some countries. The application of fumigant mixtures increases the costs. Applying 1,3-D + chloropicrin, for example, is considerably more expensive than applying MB.
Very little is known about the use of methyl iodide as a fumigant. Sims et al. (1996) and Hutchinson et al. (1997) tested this chemical against some soil -borne fungi, nematodes and weeds, with promising results. Pest organisms that are equally or better controlled with methyl iodide than with MB include Phytophthora citricola, P. cinnamomi, P. parasitica, Rhizoctonia solani, the nematode Heterodera schachtii, and the weeds Cyperus rotundus, Poa annua, Portulaca oleracea, and Sisymbrium irio (Ristaino & Thomas, 1997). Methyl iodide is a low-boiling liquid. It may increase worker safety due to a substantially reduced probability of worker exposure compared with MB. The chemical demonstrates a high photolability which results in a very short resistance time in the atmosphere (about one week). Its potential for use as a stored product fumigant is also currently being evaluated. Methyl iodide is an expensive chemical.
None of these chemical alternatives alone offers the broad-spectrum disinfestation features of MB. Chemical non-fumigant alternatives are especially problematic due to the ability of many soil pests to develop resistance. Furthermore, environmental and health considerations may limit the use of these pesticides. Some of them, like 1,3-D and metam sodium, are particularly hazardous because of suspected or proven carcinogenic or teratogenic properties and pose similar threats to human health and the agro-ecosystem as MB.
Application: |
The soil is sterilised using hot water for at least 30 minutes |
Crops: |
Forestry, nurseries, horticultural crops, flowers, ornamentals, tobacco seedbeds 2, etc. |
Target organisms: |
Effective against almost all soil -borne pests, diseases and weeds |
Peculiarities: |
Limited steam penetration in the field restricts the use for surface applications. Manganese solubilisation can result in phytotoxicity problems if steam treatments are applied at high temperature. Accelerated decomposition of organic matter causes ammonia, carbon dioxide and organic products to be liberated. Inorganic materials break down or change; nitrates and nitrite are reduced to ammonia and nutrient solubility or availability changes. Can cause a "biological desert", like MB. Recolonisation of micro-organisms is required (cf. 3.1.3) |
Economics: |
Certain steam techniques are very expensive and energy-intensive, but some modern techniques are efficient. Therefore only feasible in greenhousesgreenhouses greenhouses and nurseries ; high energy consumption (wood, gas or oil) may cause problems with environmental pollution (greenhouse effect). |
Countries: |
Belgium, Brazil, Colombia, France, Germany, Iceland, Italy, Netherlands, Switzerland, Thailand, United Kingdom, USA, Zimbabwe |
Sources: |
De Ceuster (1993), Hallas & al. (1993), Rodriguez-Kabana (1995), TemaNord (1995), Miller (1996), EPA (1997), Müller (1997) |
Application: |
Covering of the soil with plastic films (for at least 1 month); ideal for tropical countries because high sun radiation is required |
Crops: |
Shallow-rootedcrops: crops: and short-season crops: crops: crops, strawberries, tomato es, fruits, vegetables, tree nurseries, orchard crops, tobacco, etc. |
Target organisms: |
Broad spectrum of soil diseases, fungi, weeds, nematodes, insect pests and soil -borne bacteria ; cannot control endoparasitic root-knot nematodes, certain weeds and deeply located fungi such as Armillaria spp. |
Effects: |
Solarisation traps solar radiation in soils. It is a hydrothermal process in moist soils that causes complex changes in the physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil. The heat raises the temperature sufficiently to suppress or eliminate soil -borne pests and pathogens |
Peculiarities: |
Its use depends directly on the climatic conditions. Sufficient heat penetration into the soil (up to 20 cm) occurs only in warm climates. Crop yield can be significantly increased; additional benefits include water conservation and enhanced nutrient availability. Solarisation can be combined with other physical, chemical and biological methods. |
Economics: |
An economic analysis of 30 single-crop, single-season experiments demonstrates that solarisation is a very cost-effective technique when compared with MB treatment. Direct costs of solarisation can be half those of MB treatment. Solarisation combined with IPM measures is much cheaper than MB or steam treatment |
Countries: |
In more than 50 countries, e.g. Argentina, Australia, Brazil, China, Egypt, southern part of the EC, India, Israel, Japan, Jordan, Morocco, Philippines and USA |
Sources: |
Katan (1991), EPA (1996), Miller (1996), Prospect Consulting (1997), Noling (1997) |
Application: |
Use of substrates such as water, rock wool, tuff stone, clay granules, volcanic stones and pine bark, mainly within covered agriculture |
Crops: |
Tomato es, cucumberscucumber cucumber and other vegetables, strawberries, cut flowers, tobacco seedlings, etc. |
Target organisms: |
Soil -borne pathogens |
Peculiarities: |
The methodology depends on the substrate available locally. It is efficient, performs consistently and increases yields, but demands high skills. Contributes to water conservation. The system for water and nutrient movement requires decontamination and sanitation. Disposal and/or recycling of inert substances and draining of excess water loaded with fertiliser is not satisfactory in all countries |
Economics: |
Frequently used technology. Costs depend on the applicable system: plastic greenhouses or tunnels in temperate climates; glass greenhouses in cold climates. Yield increases that outweigh the cost are frequently reported. In Denmark, for example, soilless tomato cultivation produced yield increases and higher net revenues than with MB application |
Countries: |
Belgium, Canary Islands, Denmark, Germany, Netherlands and other EC countries, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Indonesia, Jordan, Lebanon, Malaysia, Morocco, Singapore, USA and Zimbabwe |
Sources: |
De Ceuster (1993), Hallas & al. (1993), MBTOC (1994), Rodriguez-Kabana (1995), TemaNord (1995), Gyldenkærne & al. (1997), EPA (1997), Rodriguez-Kabana (1997), TEAP (1997) |
Application: |
Use of resistant rootstocks. Production of resistant varieties including systematic genetic modification of germplasm by incorporating specific genes for resistance or tolerance |
Crops: |
Tomato es, melonsmelon melon, cucurbits, citrus, grapes, fruit trees, tobacco, etc. |
Target organisms: |
Pathogenic fungi, bacterial wilt, root-knot nematodes |
Peculiarities: |
Rootstock resistance may break down with the emergence of new races and under some environmental conditions (high temperature, salinity). Breeding new resistant varieties may take 5 to 15 years |
Economics: |
In orchards and vineyards cheaper than MB fumigations; in vegetable crops more expensive |
Countries: |
China, Cyprus, Egypt, Germany, Guatemala, Italy, Japan, Jordan, Lebanon, Malaysia, Morocco, South Korea, Spain, Switzerland, Tunisia, USA, Zimbabwe |
Sources: |
Miller (1996), EPA (1997), TEAP (1997) |
Application: |
Use of disease-suppressive compost, sewage and by-products from agriculture, forest and food industries. To be used in combination with other IPM practices including inoculation with biocontrol agents and mycorrhizae |
Crops: |
Various horticultural crops, strawberries, tomato es, flowers, fruit trees, ornamentals, forest nurseries 2 |
Target organisms: |
Some soil -borne pathogens including Fusarium, Phytophthora, Pythium, Verticillium dahliae and Rhizoctonia solani |
Effects: |
Compost improves physical soil properties: water-holding capacity, infiltration, aeration, permeability, soil aggregation, micronutrient levels and supports the activity of beneficial microorganisms. Soil type plays a major role in the action of different types of compost. The effect can persist for several years |
Peculiarities: |
Particularly valuable as a way to use waste products like tree barks, municipal solid waste components and green wastes. Only mature composts should be used because immature ones may enhance pathogen activity. During composting, high temperature (60°C) must prevail long enough to kill pathogens and weed seeds. Certain waste products require regular monitoring concerning health or environmental hazards |
Economics: |
Potential for use and costs depend on reliable sources of raw materials. Disease-suppressive composts can be provided at prices approximately equal or less than other growing media |
Countries: |
Many countries, including Brazil, Chile, China, Colombia, India, Israel, Italy, Malaysia, Morocco, Philippines, Senegal, South Korea, Thailand, USA |
Sources: |
Miller (1996), EPA (1997), Hoitink (1997), Lazarovits & al. (1997), Quarles (1997), TEAP (1997), Tenuta & al. (1997) |
Application: |
Organic material from livestock manure, seafood and fisheries operations, residues from plants, etc. are used. The impact is improved by covering the soil with plastic. To be used in combination with other IPM practices |
Crops: |
Various crops, e.g. tomato es and other vegetables |
Target organisms: |
Different soil -borne pathogens and pests including Botrytis cinerea and nematodes (Heterodera, Meloidogyne and Pratylenchus ) |
Effects: |
Organic matter, e.g. from Brassicas or Compositae, releases gases (MITC, Phenyl-ITC) that kill pests. Organic materials with a high nitrogen content generate nematicidal ammonia. Chitinous material generates ammonia and stimulates the chitinolytic microflora that kills nematodes. Allelopathic toxins inhibit the growth of weeds |
Peculiarities: |
The origin of the organic material determines the active ingredient that kills soil -borne pests and pathogens. Potential disadvantages are not clearly defined. In some places there is a lack of available organic amendments. There may be production of phytotoxic compounds that requires additional waiting time after biofumigation |
Economics: |
No precise data available. Costs depend always on the availability of the material and on the transportation costs. Organic amendments in combination with solarisation reduce the cost of organic materials. In some cases, crops like broccoli or cabbage can be used to inhibit pest populations. The marketable heads reduce the cost of this treatment and the remaining plant parts are incorporated into the soil. |
Countries: |
Canary Islands and other EC countries, Australia, South Africa, USA, Zimbabwe |
Sources: |
MBTOC (1994), Bello (1996), Hafez & Fallahi (1997), Sams & al. (1997), TEAP (1997) |
Application: |
Flooding of soils for 4 - 6 weeks to a depth of 10 - 40 cm is required. For root-knot nematode control, combination with other IPM practices is recommended |
Crops: |
Rice, banana, maize, soybean, sugarcane and vegetables |
Target organisms: |
Some soil-borne pests and pathogens, particularly nematodes and non-aquatic weeds |
Effects: |
Anaerobic conditions during flooding are unfavourable to most pests, pathogens and weeds |
Peculiarities: |
Only viable in flat areas rich in mineral soils with seasonally high water tables and abundant water supply. Should be practised at high soil and ambient temperatures (above 20°C) |
Economics: |
Flooding can be a cost-effective alternative to MB, but capital cost for ditches, levelling of fields, pumps, etc. and water costs must be taken into consideration |
Countries: |
Indonesia, Malaysia, USA, Vietnam (traditional practice in some South-East Asian countries) |
Sources: |
EPA (1997), Vos & Lim (1997) |
Many types and species of organisms antagonistic to plant pathogens have been described. Biological control agents are generally highly specific, but some control a wide range of pathogens. Trichoderma spp., for example, control species of Armillaria, Botrytis, Chondrostereum, Colletotrichum, Fulvia, Monilia, Nectria, Phytophthora, Plasmopara, Pseudoperonospora, Pythium, Rhizoctonia, Rhizopus, Sclerotinia, Sclerotium, Verticillium and wood rot fungi. Myrothecium verrucaria is available as a commercial biological nematicide against species of Meloidogyne, Heterodera, Globodera, Pratylenchus, Tylenchulus semipenetrans, Trichodorus, Xiphinema and other tylenchid nematodes of food, fibre and ornamental crops. Worldwide, there are about 40 biocontrol products available against plant diseases (Ristaino & Thomas, 1997).
Biological control is most effective when combined with other methods such as solarisation and alternative fumigation techniques, the use of certain grafting methods or resistant varieties. Biological control plays an important role in IPM approaches but, used alone, it does not meet the requirements of intensive production systems.
Application: |
Seed dressing, root and soil treatment with products on the basis of Trichoderma / Gliocladium, non-pathogenic Fusarium spp., pseudomonads, Beauveria spp., Metarrhizium anisopliae and Paecilomyces lilacinus |
Crops: |
Ornamental and food plants in nurseries, greenhouses and fields |
Target organisms: |
Damping-off, Fusarium wilts and root-rot pathogens (Phytophthora, Pythium and Rhizoctonia solani ), some insects and lesion nematodes |
Effects: |
Antagonistic fungi overwhelm competing pathogens or they cause fatal diseases as with insect pests |
Peculiarities: |
Most antagonists act very specifically against one or only some soil -borne pathogens. In order to introduce and establish antagonistic fungi in the soil, an unoccupied ecological niche is required or they must be added in large amounts |
Availability: |
Some commercial products are available |
Countries: |
Austria, Belgium, Colombia, Malawi, Philippines, USA, Zambia, Zimbabwe |
Sources: |
De Ceuster (1993), MBTOC (1994), Rodriguez-Kabana & Martinez-Ochoa (1995), Miller (1996) |
Application: |
The introduction of rhizobacteria like Burkholderia cepacia into the soil by seed coverings or coatings offers protection to young plants at their most critical growth stage. |
Crops: |
Various crops including forest nurseries 2 |
Target organisms: |
Nematodes and plant pathogens including Botrytis, Fusarium, Pythium and Rhizoctonia |
Effects: |
The occupation of plant roots by rhizobacteria prevents early attacks from several pathogens and nematodes ("biological shield") |
Peculiarities: |
A stimulation of plant growth is observed |
Availability: |
Rhizobacteria products are on the market |
Countries: |
Belgium, USA |
Sources: |
De Ceuster (1993), MBTOC (1994), Pedersen & Reddy (1997) |
Application: |
Inoculation of plants |
Crops: |
Various crops, forest nurseries, pine |
Target organisms: |
Soil -borne pathogens, some soil insects |
Effects: |
This rootplant-fungus system results in root proliferation and an increase in the nutrient-adsorptive root surface |
Peculiarities: |
Plants with mycorrhizae are more resistant to some soil -borne diseases. |
Availability: |
Commercial products are available |
Countries: |
Belgium, USA |
Sources: |
De Ceuster (1993), MBTOC (1994), Quarles (1997) |
Application: |
Endophytic microorganisms are introduced in plants by seed treatment |
Crops: |
Cucumberscucumber cucumber |
Target organisms: |
Various diseases |
Effects: |
Endophytic microorganisms induce a resistance to diseases and cause higher yields |
Peculiarities: |
Introducing antagonistic endophytes into plants removes their dependency on specific environmental conditions |
Availability: |
Only some biocontrol agents are commercially available for specific pests |
Countries: |
Belgium, USA |
Sources: |
De Ceuster (1993), MBTOC (1994) |
Future soil disinfestation will in most cases not be based on applying solely one of the above-mentioned techniques, but will consist of IPM strategies that incorporate these methods plus the following elements:
Techniques: |
Different combinations of the techniques mentioned above (3.1.1 to 3.1.3) |
Crops: |
Flowers, ornamentals, tobacco, cabbage, broccoli, strawberries, vegetables, tomato, vineyards, apples,, banana, mangoes, pepper peppers peppers, forest nurseries, etc. |
Target organisms: |
A broad spectrum of soil -borne pests including nematodes and diseases |
Effects: |
The main effect of well-defined IPM strategies is a sustainable improvement of the soil fertility and the establishment of a healthy soil fauna that reduce the risk of disease and pest occurrence |
Peculiarities: |
Labour-intensive processes, but long-term effects can be obtained that reduce the frequency of pesticide application |
Economics: |
Cost depends on local conditions (costs for labour, energy, etc.). In several countries like Colombia, the EC, Nordic countries, South Africa and the USA, examples have been reported indicating that the IPM approach was more cost-effective than the use of MB. |
Countries: |
Argentina, Australia, Canada, Canary Islands, Chile, China, Colombia, Costa Rica, Denmark, Germany, Guatemala, Indonesia, Italy, Mexico, Pakistan, Philippines, South Africa, Spain, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, USA (California), Vietnam, Zimbabwe |
Sources: |
Blair (1995), Cassidy (1995), Rodriguez-Kabana (1995), Miller (1996), Quarles (1997), TEAP (1997) |
Combining an environmentally sound method of soil disinfestation such as solarisation (see 3.1.2.2) with the enrichment of the soil using beneficial microorganisms (see 3.1.3.1 to 3.1.3.3) appears to be particularly promising.
Integrated crop production systems have been developed in many parts of the world and have considerably improved the sustainability of agriculture (MBTOC, 1994). Crop rotation, planting time, deep ploughing, flooding and water management, fallowing, use of cover crops, fertilisation and plant growth substrates are important parts of IPM approaches and can help to manage a wide range of pests and diseases, especially as environmental and health considerations may limit the use of most of the pesticides listed in 3.1.1.8.
A multinational research programme in Europe focuses on the reduction of MB inputs and emissions. The use of virtually impermeable films (VIF) showed interesting results for MB users. Reductions of 50% in doses and emissions have been measured (TEAP, 1997). Apart from the immediate beneficial effect, such films can improve the performance of any other technique dependent on soil coverage, for example, biofumigation. In all cases where plastic films are involved in soil disinfestation, an appropriate environmentally sound disposal system must be installed.
Miller (1996) gives more detailed examples of economic aspects, including operating costs of using alternatives to MB in Chile and Zimbabwe. These data, drawn from case studies, could be taken as approximate indicators of cost. Certainly they vary from one situation to another.
The treatments listed below are regarded by the MBTOC as requiring further development:
(Integrated Production Systems)
Commodities: |
Grapes, kiwiskiwi kiwi, melonsmelon melon, citrus fruit, vegetables and other commodities |
Target organisms: |
Mediterranean fruit fly (Ceratitis capitata ), melon and fruit flies |
Effects: |
Production in officially recognised zones that are free from quarantine pests allows commodities to be exported without quarantine treatment |
Peculiarities: |
As no quarantine treatment is necessary, consumer acceptance of produce from pest-free zones is particularly high |
Economics: |
Pest-free zones are often geographically isolated areas and require continuous monitoring that make them expensive |
Countries: |
Australia, Brazil, Chile, China, Ecuador, Japan, Mexico, New Zealand, USA |
Sources: |
MBTOC (1994), Bell & al. (1996), TEAP (1997) |
Commodities: |
Apple, banana, cherries, papaya, avocado (with a good potential for other crops ) |
Target organisms: |
Different pests and diseases |
Effects: |
Systems approaches decrease pest pressure to a level that is very easily controlled |
Peculiarities: |
Current pre-harvest pest control practices are in most cases still insufficient to comply with the predominant concept of quarantine security (cf. 3.6.3) |
Economics: |
Systems approaches require well-defined IPM strategies and sorting procedures at various levels that tend to make them comparatively expensive |
Countries: |
Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, New Zealand, South Korea, USA |
Sources: |
MBTOC (1994), Bell & al. (1996), TEAP (1997) |
Chemical alternatives to MB have generally a limited potential because of difficulties in application, narrow pest spectrums of activity, the risk of damage to the commodities and because of residues.
Commodities: |
Cool-stored grapes, lycheeslychee lychee |
Target organisms: |
Fungi, with a potential to control mealy bugs and lepidoptera |
Peculiarities: |
Up to now this technique has only been tested at laboratory level |
Countries: |
USA |
Sources: |
MBTOC (1994), Bell & al. (1996) |
Commodities: |
Various fresh commodities |
Target organisms: |
Thrips, white flies, scale insects and aphids |
Peculiarities: |
Highly toxic, not approved for use in all countries. Poor acceptance at the level of politicians and consumers |
Countries: |
Japan |
Sources: |
MBTOC (1994), Bell & al. (1996) |
This product (ECO2FUMETM) has proven to be highly effective on cut flowers (EPA, 1997) (cf. 3.3.1.3!)
Carbonyl sulfide causes growth inhibition in Fusarium culmorum and F. avenaceum. (cf. 3.3.2.1 and 3.4.2.3!)
Commodities: |
Exports of cut flowers |
Target organisms: |
Insect pests |
Effects: |
The pests are killed through the action of a contact insecticide |
Countries: |
Australia, Malaysia, New Zealand |
Sources: |
MBTOC (1994), Bell & al. (1996) |
Commodities: |
Tomato es exported to New Zealand, exports of orchid flowers, cut flowers |
Target organisms: |
Queensland fruit fly (Bactrocera tryoni ), Dichromothrips corbetti |
Effects: |
The pests are killed through the action of a contact insecticide |
Peculiarities: |
Because of consumer concerns about residues, chemical dips are discouraged in some countries. They are, however, acceptable for non-edible commodities non-ediblecommodities non-ediblecommodities |
Countries: |
Australia, Hawaii, Thailand, Zimbabwe |
Sources: |
MBTOC (1994), Bell & al. (1996), TEAP (1997) |
Application: |
Cold treatment is usually applied for at least 10 days |
Commodities: |
Fruit, e.g. citrus, grapes, kiwiskiwi kiwi, apples, and different stone fruit |
Target organisms: |
Tropical and subtropical fruit flies, Brevipalpus chilensis |
Peculiarities: |
Used for treating fruit that is potentially infested with pests showing a low tolerance to cool temperatures. Due to the limited tolerance of the commodities to cool conditions, the range of temperature that can be applied is generally very narrow (-1 to +2°C). The effects of temperature on the tolerance and quality of tropical and subtropical fruits are not well known. Combined treatment is possible (waxing / heated dry air, etc.). No residue problems. |
Economics: |
In many cases, cold storage is already used to conserve fruit so that no increase in cost is involved |
Countries: |
Canada, EC, Israel, Jordan, Mexico, Morocco, South Africa, South American countries (e.g. Chile), USA |
Sources: |
Civerolo (1993), MBTOC (1994), Bell & al. (1996), Miller (1996) |
Application: |
Current application techniques are: high temperature forced air, vapour heat and immersion in hot water |
Commodities: |
Subtropical and tropical fruit, e.g. citrus, mango and papaya, vegetables, bulbs and cut flowers |
Target organisms: |
Fruit flies, lepidoptera (codling moth ) and fungi |
Effects: |
At temperatures above 45°C insect pests die, above 62°C they die within a minute. Heat causes denaturation of insect protein |
Peculiarities: |
The temperatures applied range from 40 to 50°C, the duration of the treatments from 10 minutes to 8 hours. Application is simple and there are no health hazards. Temperatures and the duration of the treatment must be very precise in order to kill the pests without damaging the commodity |
Economics: |
Hot-water immersion systems are comparable in costs to MB. Other heat treatments are seven times more expensive on a per-tonne commodity basis |
Countries: |
Caribbean, Mexico, South America, Taiwan, USA |
Sources: |
MBTOC (1994), Heather (1994), Bell & al. (1996), EPA (1996) |
Application: |
Temperatures are generally around 43 - 49°C with exposure periods from 30 minutes to 1 hour |
Commodities: |
Bulbs, tubers and roots |
Target organisms: |
Nematodes |
Economics: |
More expensive than MB |
Countries: |
USA |
Sources: |
MBTOC (1994), Bell & al. (1996), Miller (1996) |
Application: |
Treatment is carried out at gas concentrations of 0.5 % O2 and 2.5 % CO2 and low temperatures (0 to 2°C) over at least 1 to 2 months |
Commodities: |
Fruit from temperate regions, e.g. apples, pearspear pear and table grapes |
Target organisms: |
Lepidoptera, scale insects |
Effects: |
The death of the target pests is caused by lack of O2 |
Peculiarities: |
Extends shelf life and enhances fruit quality. Not suitable for some highly perishableperishables perishables commodities (cherries, berry crops ) |
Economics: |
In spite of considerable operating, labour and capital investments, benefits outweigh costs |
Countries: |
Argentina, Brazil, Canada, EC, USA |
Sources: |
Civerolo (1993), MBTOC (1994), Bell & al. (1996), EPA (1997) |
Commodities: |
Vegetables, fruit and cereal products |
Target organisms: |
Insects, e.g. thrips, aphids and beetles |
Effects: |
Reduction of produce respiration, slowing of ethylene production, inhibition of pathogen reproduction and killing of insect pests |
Peculiarities: |
Containers must meet a pressure test standard. Not suitable for commodities such as papaya, Asian pears, nectarinesnectarine nectarine, certain berries and some others with a short shelf life |
Economics: |
Substantial savings because controlled atmosphere containers allow switching from air to sea transport |
Countries: |
Australia, USA |
Sources: |
Gay (1996), van S. Graver (1997) |
Commodities: |
Strawberries, citrus |
Target organisms: |
Fruit flies |
Effects: |
Comparable to the effect of 3.2.3.5 |
Peculiarities: |
Fruit respiration is allowed to modify the atmosphere, reducing O2 and raising CO2 levels. Modified atmospheres are not easily controlled. This technique is currently not used commercially |
Sources: |
MBTOC (1994), Bell & al. (1996) |
Commodities: |
Some fruit and vegetables |
Target organisms: |
Fruit flies and fruit weevils |
Effects: |
Irradiation treatment at about 150 Gy induces sterility and sometimes causes mortality of the target insects |
Peculiarities: |
Provides extended shelf life and decay control under higher dosages. The treatment time is usually short. Limited use because of poor consumer, industry and regulatory acceptance in a number of countries |
Economics: |
Capital costs are currently high |
Countries: |
This treatment is registered in about 35 countries |
Sources: |
Civerolo (1993), MBTOC (1994), Bell & al. (1996) |
TEAP (1997) reports research on implementation of radiation treatments:
Combinations: |
1. Vapour heat + cool storage 2. Soapy water + wax coating |
Commodities: |
1. Lychee 2. Cherimoya fruit |
Target organisms: |
Oriental fruit flies |
Peculiarities: |
Combined treatment of perishables have, up to now, been rarely reported, probably due to the extensive technical documentation required. |
Countries: |
1. Taiwan to Japan 2. Chile to USA |
Sources: |
MBTOC (1994), Bell & al. (1996) |
Physical removal of pests with water under high pressure removes "hitch-hikers ", scale insects and mealy bugs from fruit surfaces. Insects inside the fruits are not controlled by this treatment. Certain pests are removed by hand from cut flowers destined for the USA. Many countries accept root crops if they are free of soil.
The treatment costs for perishables are comparatively insignificant compared to the value of the commodities. As a result, more expensive treatments, for example, the application of moist or dry heat, can be economically viable alternatives to MB.
Application: |
The application follows the routine procedures for sealed bulks and bags. Best results are achieved above 15°C. Exposure periods vary from 3 - 15 days depending on the insect species and the commodity temperature. For the most susceptible insect species at least 3 days' exposure are required |
Commodities: |
Cereals, grain legumes, beverage crops, nuts, dried fruit and others |
Target organisms: |
Stored product insects and mites (mite eggs are highly tolerant; a second treatment may be required after hatching) |
Effects: |
Respiratory poison that kills all insects including their immature stages. In the presence of phosphine both susceptible and resistant strains may continue to develop. Thus high tolerances can be overcome by longer exposures. The long exposure time (3 to 15 days) is caused by the narcotising effect of phosphine |
Peculiarities: |
Phosphine is the most commonly used fumigant in A5 countries because of its comparatively low cost, ease of handling and effectiveness. It is the only fumigant that can immediately replace MB. However, insect resistances have appeared due to poor sealing and the non-compliance with minimum exposure periods. Phosphine has no effect on the germination of seeds |
Economics: |
Calculated on the basis of the active dose, the prices of phosphine and MB are practically the same in Nordic countries. Depending on the local prices and the application procedures phosphine treatment is in most cases more expensive than MB (up to 3 times). The main part of the cost is material and labour, so that in developing countries with low labour cost phosphine fumigation may be an economically acceptable alternative to MB |
Countries: |
Worldwide |
Sources: |
Hallas & al. (1993), MBTOC (1994), Bell & al. (1996), van S. Graver (1997) |
Application: |
This technique is applied in vertical silos (warehouses). A pneumatic hammer is used to introduce ventilation ducts in the bulk in order to assist gas distribution. Another alternative is the Horn phosphine generator which generates gas on site and can also be used in silos |
Commodities: |
Cereals in bulk |
Target organisms: |
Stored product insects |
Effects: |
The ventilation system provides a quick and even distribution of phosphine that acts as described in 3.3.1.1 |
Economics: |
Requires less gas (2.4 g/t) than conventional techniques, but the cost of equipment is higher |
Countries: |
Chile, France, UK |
Sources: |
Chakrabarti & al. (1994), Horn (1997), TEAP III (1997) |
Application: |
Cylinders containing 2 % phosphine in CO2 are used to generate the gas |
Commodities: |
Grain, tobacco, cocoa beans, coffee, but also perishable perishables perishablescommodities like grapes and citrus and structural fumigations (flour mills, processing plant s) |
Target organisms: |
Stored product insects |
Effects: |
The phosphine/CO2 mixture acts as described in 3.3.1.1 |
Peculiarities: |
Can be released at cold temperatures. No metal phosphide residues. Doses can be precisely administered. 2 days of exposure at about 200 ppm were sufficient to kill all stages of most stored product insect pests (with the exception of Indian meal moth eggs ). The same effect as with pellet formulations of phosphide can be achieved with half the dosage |
Countries: |
Australia, Canada, Europe, USA |
Sources: |
Mueller et al. (1997), Phillips al. (1997), TEAP III (1997) |
Application: |
This technique works with a gas distribution system (existing aeration ducts may be used). Cylinders containing phosphine in CO2 are used to generate the gas (ECO2FUMETM) |
Commodities: |
Cereals in bulk (horizontal and vertical silos) |
Target organisms: |
Stored product insects |
Effects: |
The phosphine CO2 mixture acts as described in 3.3.1.1 |
Peculiarities: |
Combination with a surface layer of inert dust (3.3.5) is possible |
Economics: |
The economic advantage of this technique is that sealing costs are reduced |
Countries: |
Australia, Belgium, USA |
Sources: |
Schonstein & al. (1994), Winks & Russell (1994a, 1994b), Meeus (1997), Mueller & al. (1997) |
Use: |
Cereals, grain legumes, nuts, cocoa, coffee and others |
Target organisms: |
Stored product pests |
Peculiarities: |
Faster than solid phosphide formulations, advantages comparable to 3.3.1.3 |
Countries: |
Germany (in the registration process) |
Sources: |
Szemjonneck (1997) |
Application: |
Phosphine is applied on board the ship at departure. The products are ventilated on arrival |
Commodities: |
Cereals in bulk carriers |
Target organisms: |
Stored product insects and mites |
Effects: |
See 3.3.1.1 |
Peculiarities: |
Specially designed vessels are required that are sufficiently gastight to ensure effectiveness and provide perfect safety |
Economics: |
Time-saving and thus economically advantageous as the exposure takes place during the transportation period |
Countries: |
Cereal-exporting countries (EC, USA and others) |
Sources: |
Davis (1986), MBTOC (1994), Semple & Kirenga (undated) |
Commodities: |
Grain, timber (potential for perishable perishables perishablescommodities is currently being investigated) |
Target organisms: |
Stored product insects and mites, termites |
Effects: |
This toxic gas provokes the death of all external insect stages within 24 hours at a concentration of 25 mg/l. Against internal stages of some species (including Sitophilus oryzae ) higher dosages are required |
Peculiarities: |
A naturally occurring gas; patented for fumigation in Australia; good commodity penetration; no effect on seed germination; up to now only tested at research level and not yet registered |
Countries: |
Australia |
Sources: |
Desmarchelier (1994a), Bell & al. (1996), Plarre & Reichmuth (1996), EPA (1997) |
Commodities: |
Grain |
Target organisms: |
Stored product insects |
Effects: |
Sitophilus and other pest species can be killed completely within 24 hours |
Peculiarities: |
MITC is the active ingredient of an African plant tradi-tionally used as a storage protectant. MITC has a high sorption power on grain. It has not yet been sufficiently studied whether it leaves residues harmful to man |
Countries: |
France (under development) |
Sources: |
Ducom (1994), Bell & al. (1996) |
Commodities: |
Dried fruit and cereal products |
Target organisms: |
Stored product insects |
Effects: |
Ethyl formate kills stored product insects in a few hours |
Peculiarities: |
High sorption leads to a slow distribution and increases the exposure period to 3 days; ethyl formate penetrates packaging materials |
Countries: |
Australia, South Africa; no registration in EC and USA |
Sources: |
MBTOC (1994), Bell & al. (1996) |
Commodities: |
Logs, timber, bark, wood products and empty space treatments |
Target organisms: |
Beetles, wood -wasps, termites and stored product insects |
Effects: |
All stages of insects are controlled using a dose of 64 g/m3 for 16 hours or a dose of 35 mg/m3 with a 24-h exposure |
Peculiarities: |
Very good penetration and effect on all adult wood -infesting insects. The poor control of eggs requires the high dosage indicated above. Not to be used on food commodities, feed, medicinal products, etc. |
Economics: |
Considered to be 2 - 4 times more expensive than MB |
Countries: |
Germany, Sweden, USA |
Sources: |
Binker (1993), MBTOC (1994), Bell & al. (1996), Drinkall & al. (1996), Reichmuth (1996) |
Application: |
The air in the store is exchanged through burner gas obtained from the combustion of propane to obtain an atmosphere containing less than 1 % of O2 and 12 % of CO2 plus balance N2 and inerts; minimum exposure time: 14 days |
Commodities: |
All durabledurables durables commodities |
Target organisms: |
Stored product insects |
Effects: |
By combustion of gas, the O2 in the store 's atmosphere is depleted so that the target pests cannot survive |
Peculiarities: |
The oxygen concentration must permanently be kept below 1% (maintenance of the atmosphere is required) |
Economics: |
Hermetically sealed storage structures and a gas supply are required, making this method considerably more expensive than using MB |
Countries: |
Australia |
Sources: |
Banks & al. (1990), MBTOC (1994), Bell & al. (1996) |
Application: |
N2 is obtained from compressed air; minimum exposure time: 21 days |
Commodities: |
All durabledurables durables commodities |
Target organisms: |
Stored product insects |
Effects: |
N2 replaces the store 's natural atmosphere. The survival of the target pests is prevented by lack of O2 |
Peculiarities: |
See 3.3.3.1 |
Economics: |
See 3.3.3.1 |
Countries: |
Australia, Germany |
Sources: |
Banks & al. (1990), MBTOC (1994), Bell & al. (1996) |
Application: |
CO2 concentrations between 60 and 95 % are currently used; no maintenance of the atmosphere is required; minimum exposure period: 15 days |
Commodities: |
All durable durables durables commodities (bulk and bags ) |
Target organisms: |
Stored product insects |
Effects: |
CO2 in concentrations above 60 % has a toxic effect on insects |
Economics: |
See 3.3.3.1 |
Countries: |
Australia, Germany, South-East Asia, USA |
Sources: |
Banks & al. (1990), MBTOC (1994), Bell & al. (1996), van S. Graver (1997) |
Commodities: |
Quarantine treatment of cereals and other commodities |
Target organisms: |
Stored product insects |
Effects: |
5 minutes' exposure to CO2 at a pressure of 30 kg/cm2 kills all insects including the immature stages (acceleration of the toxic action) |
Peculiarities: |
Under standard ambient conditions, CO2 requires an exposure period of over 15 days; high pressure reduces the period to some minutes. |
Economics: |
The high cost of pressure-proof chambers with 20-mm-steel walls limits the potential of this quick method |
Countries: |
Germany |
Sources: |
Caliboso & al. (1994), Reichmuth & Wohlgemuth (1994) |
Application: |
Contact insecticides such as chlorpyrifos-methyl, fenitrothion, pirimiphos-methyl and others are in most cases applied as dustable powder (DP) or emulsifiable concentrate (EC) formulations that are mixed with the grain in preventive treatment |
Commodities: |
Grains and other commodities |
Target organisms: |
Stored product insects (in most cases the effect on bostrichid beetles and other internal feeders is weak) |
Effects: |
Toxic effects on the target insects through contact and, in some cases, vapour action of the active ingredients; the persistence ranges from some months to more than 2 years |
Peculiarities: |
In industrialised countries there is a widespread consumer aversion to chemical residues in foodstuff. Curative treatments such as fogging cannot be considered as alternatives to MB |
Economics: |
Cost depends on the tonnage of grain to be treated. Approximately 1 USD/t |
Countries: |
Worldwide (registration varies between different countries) |
Sources: |
Desmarchelier (1994b), MBTOC (1994), Bell & al. (1996), Gwinner & al. (1996) |
Application: |
Synthetic pyrethroids are applied using the same techniques as for organophosphorous insecticides |
Commodities: |
Grains and other commodities |
Target organisms: |
Stored product insects, particularly bostrichids |
Effects: |
Synthetic pyrethroids have a long-lasting effect on grain (often over 2 years) |
Peculiarities: |
See 3.3.4.1. Admixture of active ingredients such as deltamethrin and others to the grain prevents bostrichid attack; no curative treatment! |
Economics: |
Roughly similar to 3.3.4.1 |
Countries: |
Worldwide (registration varies between different countries). No registration in Germany |
Sources: |
MBTOC (1994), Bell & al. (1996) |
Application: |
IGRs are applied in the same way as conventional insecticides |
Commodities: |
Grains, tobacco and other commodities |
Target organisms: |
Stored product insects |
Effects: |
IGRs interfere with the regulation of insect development using hormones, but do not control adult insects |
Peculiarities: |
Long persistence on foodstuffs, but low human toxicity due to the insect-specific action; only methoprene is registered for use in stored products, but not suitable for the control of bean weevils and Sitophilus spp. |
Economics: |
High cost compared with conventional insecticides |
Countries: |
Methoprene: Australia, UK, USA |
Sources: |
MBTOC (1994), Bell & al. (1996), Quarles (1996) |
Commodities: |
Logs |
Target organisms: |
Wood -infesting insects |
Effects: |
Immersion of logs over 30 days suffocates insects ; the upper surface of the wood is protected by the insecticide |
Countries: |
Japan, USA |
Sources: |
MBTOC (1994), Bell & al. (1996) |
Commodities: |
Timber, logs |
Target organisms: |
Wood -infesting insects |
Countries: |
USA |
Sources: |
MBTOC (1994), Bell & al. (1996) |
Application: |
Immersion of timber in a 10 % solution for 4 - 10 minutes |
Commodities: |
Timber |
Target organisms: |
Surface-living fungi |
Peculiarities: |
Bifluorides do not penetrate deep enough into the wood 2 to kill all the spores |
Economics: |
Relatively inexpensive |
Countries: |
Europe |
Sources: |
MBTOC (1994), Bell & al. (1996) |
Application: |
Admixture to the commodities; application rates: 0.1 - 0.2 weight % |
Commodities: |
Grains |
Target organisms: |
Stored product insects |
Effects: |
Silica aerogels, like other inert dusts, kill the insects mainly through abrasion, desiccation and injuries to the insects ' articulations. Poor effect on internal feeders |
Peculiarities: |
Very light, non-hygroscopic powders; precautions for worker safety must be taken (protective suits including dust masks). Most effective in dry conditions; persistence: about one year |
Economics: |
The application of inert dusts does not require capital equipment. The cost of treatment is approximately 8.8 USD/t. As grain contaminated with silica dust is not marketable in many countries, cleaning involves additional costs |
Countries: |
Australia, USA |
Sources: |
Barbosa & al. (1994), Giga & Chinwada (1994), MBTOC (1994), Bell & al. (1996) |
Application: |
Easier to apply than silica aerogels; application rates: 0.1 - 0.35 weight %. Activated earths are coated with silica aerogel; application rate: 0.1 % |
Commodities: |
Grains |
Target organisms: |
Stored product insects |
Effects: |
See 3.3.5.1, but slightly less effective than silica aerogels |
Peculiarities: |
Fewer dust problems than in the application of silica aerogels, but the same precautions for worker safety as described in 3.3.5.1 apply |
Economics: |
See 3.3.5.1; diatomaceous earths are considered to be organic as they consist of fossilised phytoplankton; it is therefore not always necessary to clean the grain |
Countries: |
Australia, Germany, USA |
Sources: |
MBTOC (1994), Bell & al. (1996), Feldhege (1996), Quarles & Winn (1996) |
Inert dusts are also used in integrated stored product protection schemes as surface treatments together with flow-through fumigation using phosphine (see 3.3.1.4), with heat treatments (see 3.4.1.4) or with cooling (see 3.3.6.3).
Commodities: |
Bulk commodities |
Target organisms: |
Stored product insects |
Effects: |
Most stored product insects do not develop significantly at temperatures below 17°C; however, the insects will not be eliminated |
Peculiarities: |
Cannot be used as a substitute for MB in curative treatment, but can be used as a preventive measure to limit insect development |
Economics: |
Cooling with ambient air is comparatively cheap as it only requires efficient ventilation systems |
Countries: |
Everywhere in temperate climates |
Sources: |
MBTOC (1994), Bell & al. (1996) |
Commodities: |
Grain |
Target organisms: |
Stored product insects |
Effects: |
See 3.3.6.1; the insects will not be eliminated |
Peculiarities: |
Up to now practised where there is an urgent need to reduce the temperature; should gain in importance with the ban on MB |
Economics: |
Expensive because of the high amounts of energy required |
Countries: |
Developed in Germany, used in Medi-terranean and sub-tropical countries, Australia and the USA |
Sources: |
Maier (1993), MBTOC (1994), Bell & al. (1996) |
Commodities: |
Bulk cereals |
Target organisms: |
Stored product insects |
Effects: |
The application of an inert dust layer eliminates the insects accumulating in the top layer of the grain under cool conditions |
Peculiarities: |
Using dust treatment in addition to cooling allows meeting the standard of no detectable insects without leaving chemical residues |
Economics: |
Commercially applied in Australia, as the technique provides good insect control at reasonable cost |
Countries: |
Australia |
Sources: |
Nickson & al. (1994), MBTOC (1994), Bell & al. (1996) |
Commodities: |
All heat-tolerant commodities |
Target organisms: |
Stored product insects such as the Khapra beetle and wood borers |
Effects: |
At temperatures above 45°C insect pests die, above 62°C they die within a minute |
Peculiarities: |
Temperatures range from 65 to 100°C; exposure times from 7 minutes to 2 hours. There is a high amount of energy required for this treatment that may contribute to global warming |
Economics: |
Considered to be expensive |
Countries: |
USA |
Sources: |
MBTOC (1994), Bell & al. (1996), Miller (1996) |
Application: |
Grain is heated to 60 - 80°C for a few minutes, followed by blowing cool air through the grain in order to avoid damage |
Commodities: |
Bulk grain |
Target organisms: |
Stored product insects |
Effects: |
See 3.3.7.1 |
Economics: |
A commercial prototype can treat 150 t/h; facilities with the capacity of modern grain conveying systems (500 t/h) would be highly capital-intensive |
Countries: |
Australia |
Sources: |
MBTOC (1994), Bell & al. (1996), Heaps (1996) |
Commodities: |
Grain |
Target organisms: |
Stored product insects |
Effects: |
See 3.3.7.1 |
Peculiarities: |
Pilot studies have been conducted, but cooling still poses problems |
Sources: |
MBTOC (1994), Bell & al. (1996), Halverson & al. (1997) |
Application: |
Tobacco is exposed to a steam flow that heats it to 60°C for 3 minutes |
Commodities: |
Tobacco |
Target organisms: |
Cigarette beetle, Tobacco moth |
Effects: |
See 3.3.7.1 |
Economics: |
In the tobacco industry, steam conditioning constitutes part of processing and therefore does not cause additional costs |
Countries: |
Worldwide |
Sources: |
Ryan (1993) |
Commodities: |
Timber |
Target organisms: |
Fungi and insects |
Effects: |
Fungi are eradicated if exposed to 66°C for 1.25 hours; see also 3.3.7.1 |
Peculiarities: |
Kiln-drying or dry heat is also suitable for sawn timber. In the USA, a method for in-transit steam heating of timber has been developed. Centre temperature of the wood should be at least 56°C for at least 30 minutes. Big cargoes can be treated hold per hold |
Economics: |
Heat treatment increases the value of many types of wood. In such cases heat treatment is economically superior to MB |
Countries: |
Denmark, USA |
Sources: |
MBTOC (1994), Bell & al. (1996), EPA (1996), Seidner (1997) |
Because of the high capital investment required, heating of grain is not yet commercially practised. Due to the fact that heating is one of the few techniques that is competitive with MB as far as the exposure period is concerned, it is likely to come into practical use.
Commodities: |
Bulk and packaged products |
Target organisms: |
Stored product insects |
Effects: |
A dose of 0.5 kGy disinfests all stored food products from insect pests ; sterility and delayed development occur at lower dosages |
Peculiarities: |
The lack of consumer acceptance of irradiated food products poses considerable problems in some countries |
Economics: |
Initial capital expenditure for plant construction and related logistics is high |
Countries: |
About 40 countries including Canada and the USA |
Sources: |
Ahmed (1990), Civerolo (1993), Ignatowicz (1993), MBTOC (1994), Bell & al. (1996), EPA (1996), Borsa & al. (1997), Drake & Neven (1997) |
Commodities: |
Bulk cereals |
Target organisms: |
Stored product insects |
Effects: |
Accelerated electrons are slightly less effective than |
Peculiarities: |
A plant capable of treating 200 t of grain /h near Odessa is no longer in use |
Economics: |
See 3.3.8.1 |
Countries: |
Applied in the past in the Soviet Union |
Sources: |
MBTOC (1994), Bell & al. (1996) |
Commodities: |
Wheat and other durabledurables durables and perishable perishables perishablescommodities |
Target organisms: |
Karnal bunt (Tilletia indica ), other pathogens and pests |
Effects: |
Teliospores of Karnal bunt are completely killed after a 10-second treatment |
Peculiarities: |
Reduction of seed germination is about 37 % after 10-second exposure |
Countries: |
USA |
Sources: |
Ingemanson (1997) |
Application: |
Techniques include Entoleters in which flour falls between rapidly spinning disks and is impacted on steel pegs fixed to the rims. Capacities are up to 12 t/hour. Mechanical conveying of cereals and gentle tumbling of grain legumes every 8 hours over a 2-week period are other types of impaction |
Commodities: |
Flour, cereals, grain legumes |
Target organisms: |
Stored product insects including bruchids |
Effects: |
Shock, abrasion and impaction cause moderate to high levels of mortality depending on the technique. Multiple impacts increase the effect |
Peculiarities: |
Entoleters are frequently found in mills and control all living insect stages. Impaction of cereals in conveying systems is generally not satisfactory because, even at speeds producing only moderate mortality, levels of breakage are unacceptably high. Tumbling of grain legumes reduces populations of the Common bean weevil (Acanthoscelides obtectus ) |
Economics: |
Entoleters are routine fixtures in flour mills. Apart from the conveying of grain that is anyway necessary during handling procedures no major application is visible as grain damage outweighs benefits if satisfactory mortalities are to be achieved. Tumbling of grain legumes is labour-intensive |
Countries: |
Worldwide |
Sources: |
Stratil & al. (1987), Bahr (1990), Quentin & al. (1991), Plarre & al. (1993), Banks & Fields (1995), Bell & al. (1996) |
Commodities: |
Logs |
Target organisms: |
Bark -borne pests, especially beetles |
Effects: |
Bark-borne pests are removed together with the bark |
Peculiarities: |
At present practised to a limited extent |
Economics: |
Inexpensive |
Sources: |
MBTOC (1994), Bell & al. (1996) |
Application: |
The heat is produced by special electric ovens, steam, hot water, etc. A temperature of 50 - 60°C must be maintained in the building over a period of 24 hours. A treatment combining heat + humidity is currently being developed in Germany and in the United Kingdom |
Use: |
Mills, production plants of the food industry |
Target organisms: |
All insect pests on stored products (e.g. Tribolium spp. Rhizopertha dominica, Oryzaephilus surinamensis, Ephestia spp., Plodia interpunctella ) |
Effects: |
Heat first activates the insect pests and then kills them by denaturation of the protein |
Peculiarities: |
Many buildings are not suitable for this treatment. The management of the air humidity requires special technical know-how. Temperatures > 40°C may damage wooden constructions, machinerymachinery machinery, rubber material, etc. Achieving the core temperature is usually difficult; therefore, not all hidden insect stages are affected |
Economics: |
No detailed information available. Costs depend on the local resources (e.g. steam engine), condition of the building and the price of electricity. Initial costs are higher than those associated with MB (in Nordic countries they are 33-50 % higher). In the long term, heat sterilisation may be cheaper than applying MB. Down times are similar to MB treatment |
Countries: |
Belgium, Germany, Netherlands, Nordic countries, USA |
Sources: |
AID (1994), Mueller (1994), MBTOC (1994), TemaNord (1995), Bell & al. (1996), Heaps (1996), Heiss (1997), Meeus (1997) |
Application: |
Heat sources: see 3.4.1.1; mixtures of phosphine (in solid formulations, from the Horn generator or from cylinders - ECO2FUMETM) and CO2 are used. The following conditions apply: temperature: 30_C - 38_C, phosphine concentration: 50 - 100 ppm, carbon dioxide concentration: 5 - 7 %, exposure time: at least 36 hours, relative humidity: > 30 % |
Use: |
Mills and production plants of the food industry |
Target organisms: |
Stored product pests, hygiene insect pests, rodents |
Effects: |
Heat increases insect activity. CO2 increases the respiration rate; the combination of phosphine and heat stresses the insects, leading to mortality. Within 36 - 48 hours' exposure time, only the adult insects could be controlled. |
Peculiarities: |
The building's, condition is one of the most important factors for success. Highly qualified fumigation staff is required. The problem of corroding electronic equipment has not yet been solved (long-term experience is not available). To be used preferably in countries with high temperatures. It is recommended to conduct a pressure test of the building before fumigation. Development of resistance is an unquantified risk if the operations are not carried out with extreme care |
Economics: |
This combination technique is about 20 to 30 % more expensive than treatment with MB. The larger the volume treated, the less the percentage increase in cost. The cost of phosphine in cylinders is currently 4-5 times higher than the cost of phosphine liberated from metallic phosphides. The down time can be 50 % longer than with MB. Costs are expected to decrease in the future |
Countries: |
Canada, Chile, USA |
Sources: |
Dunn (undated), MBTOC (1994), Mueller (1993), Mueller (1994), Bell & al. (1996), EPA (1997), Mueller & al. (1997), TEAP III (1997) |
Use: |
Mills and production plants of the food industry |
Target organisms: |
Stored product pests, hygiene insect pests |
Effects: |
Heat of 40 - 50°C increases insect respiratory activity and leads to better absorption of a lethal dosage of insecticide |
Peculiarities: |
Immature stages are not controlled. The procedure has to be repeated two to three times depending on the insect problem |
Countries: |
Belgium, Netherlands |
Sources: |
Meeus (1997) |
Application: |
Heat treatment is carried out at reduced temperature for 24 hours. Additionally, a commercial diatomaceous earth product is dusted after the preheat cleaning |
Use: |
Mills and production plants of the food industry |
Target organisms: |
Stored product pests like Tribolium castaneum and T. confusum, hygiene insect pests |
Effects: |
Whereas heat alone does not easily provide complete control, the combination with dry application of diatomaceous earth resulted in 100 % mortality of confused flour beetle adults in a commercial scale test. The synergistic effect could also be proven in laboratory trials with red flour beetle adults |
Peculiarities: |
The commercial scale test has been carried out at extremely low r.h. (5-19 %). At higher r.h., the effect may be weaker. Application of the diatomaceous earth as a 20 % aqueous solution did not increase mortality as compared to heat treatment alone |
Economics: |
Heat treatment alone requires 24-hour exposure to temperatures around 52 - 55°C. Using diatomaceous earth has a potential to reduce energy costs as a temperature of 41°C was sufficient to kill 100 % of the test insects. |
Countries: |
Patented in Canada |
Sources: |
Fields & al. (1997) |
Use: |
Mills |
Target organisms: |
Stored product pests, rodents |
Effects: |
Inhibits the cell respiratory system. Very quick action |
Peculiarities: |
The liquid is extremely toxic to humans. The gas is highly soluble in water which becomes toxic. Corrosion may occur. Well-trained technical staff is required for application. |
Economics: |
In Germany up to 50 % more expensive than MB; in Nordic countries 3 times more expensive |
Countries: |
Germany |
Sources: |
Stein (1986), Civerolo (1993), Hallas & al. (1993), MBTOC (1994), Bell & al. (1996) |
Application: |
Adult insects are controlled using a dose of 64 g/m3 for 16 hours or using a dose of 35 g/m3 with 24 hours' exposure at 20_C |
Use: |
Wooden constructions |
Target organisms: |
Beetles, wood -wasps, termites, stored product pests, rodents |
Effects: |
Disruption of the glycolysis cycle leads to deprivation of metabolic energy |
Peculiarities: |
Very good penetration and effect on all adult wood -infesting insects ; poor control of eggs. Not yet officially registered. Used in empty food -processing facilities and non-food cargonon-foodcargo non-foodcargo. At low temperatures a long exposure period is required |
Economics: |
Commercial structure fumigation with sulfuryl fluoride can be more cost-efficient than treatment with MB, depending on the associated costs |
Countries: |
Caribbean countries, Germany, Sweden, USA |
Sources: |
Binker (1993), Drinkall & al. (1996), EPA (1996), Kristensen (1997) |
Use: |
Mills and other buildings |
Target organisms: |
Stored product pests, wood -boring pests, fungi |
Effects: |
This toxic gas provokes the death of all external insect stages within 24 hours. The lethal dosages for Sitophilus granarius (all stages) are 32 g/m3 for 72 h and 18 g/m3 for 120 h (with 20_C and 70 % r.h.). Growth inhibition in fungi including Fusarium culmorum and F. avenaceum. |
Peculiarities: |
A naturally occurring gas; patented for fumigation in Australia; not yet registered. Tested only on laboratory level. Corrodes copper when humidity is high. Recommendable in climatic zones with high temperatures and low humidity. Highly flammable |
Countries: |
Australia (patented), Germany |
Sources: |
Desmarchelier (1994a), MBTOC (1994), Bell & al. (1996), Plarre & Reichmuth (1996) |
Use: |
Mills mill milland processing plant s, bulk cereals and other durables, soil treatment |
Target organisms: |
Bacteria, viruses, stored product and soil pests including nematodes |
Effects: |
Ozone has a sterilising action on microorganisms. With the PlasmazonTM generator developed in Germany, highly reactive ozone structures are generated that resulted in almost complete control of larvae, chrysalids and adults of Tribolium confusum, Sitophilus granarius and Ephestia kuehniella in laboratory tests |
Peculiarities: |
Breaks down rapidly and damages organic materials including rubber |
Countries: |
Tests are being conducted in Germany |
Sources: |
MBTOC (1994), Bell & al. (1996), Sieke (undated) |
cf. 3.3.1.3!
Application: |
Sanitation basically involves intensive and regular cleaning using a broom and shovel or vacuum cleaner. It facilitates visual monitoring. A plant 's surrounding area must also be cleaned and monitored in order to prevent rodent invasion. Sanitation is not meant to be a substitute for MB but a basic preventive technique to avoid pest problems that otherwise might involve MB fumigation |
Use: |
Production plants of the food and pet-food pet-food pet-foodindustry, mills, warehouses, transport vehicles, etc. |
Target organisms: |
Stored product pests, hygiene insect pests, rodents |
Effects: |
Prevention of pest hiding, survival and invasion. Prevention of up to 80% of the problems caused by insect pests and rodents is possible. This means that most fumigation can be avoided |
Peculiarities: |
Sanitation has a high impact on the commodities stored or processed in the building,. It should be one of the main components of IPM approaches and Hazard Analysis of Critical Control Points (HACCP) programmes. The principles of sanitation have been known for centuries and are easy to handle. They require, however, knowledge, attentiveness, diligence, surveillance and a sense of responsibility |
Economics: |
Normally low costs in developing countries, depending on the availability of personnel and the level of labour costs |
Countries: |
Worldwide, in Germany introduced by law in 1998 |
Sources: |
Winterbottom (1922), Banks (1987), Ryan (1993), Banks & Fields (1995), TemaNord (1995), Bell & al. (1996), Bergen (1997) |
Components: |
Installation of a pheromone-based monitoring system for insect pests (pheromone traps are commercially available for all major stored product insects ) and bait stations against rodents, regular supervision of the system. If pests occur, conduct pest-control measures and draw up documentation. Similar to sanitation, IPM strategies are not meant to be direct substitutes for MB but they considerably reduce pest problems that otherwise might involve MB fumigation |
Use: |
Production plants of the food and pet-food pet-food pet-foodindustry, mills, warehouses, restaurants, kitchens, etc. |
Target organisms: |
Stored product pests, hygiene insect pests, rodents |
Peculiarities: |
Advantages: long-term effect and, in combination with sanitation management, reduced use of pesticides. Well-trained technical staff and special equipment are required. Applications are relatively labour-intensive. All preventive techniques that keep infested goods out of the facilities must be given high priority. IPM strategies may be adapted to suit any geographical or climatic location |
Economics: |
Alternative IPM strategies may be either cheaper or more expensive than MB fumigation depending on the location and the level of pest infestation to be considered as acceptable |
Countries: |
Australia, Canada, EC, USA and other countries |
Sources: |
Trematerra (1993), Ryan (1993), Banks & Fields (1995), TemaNord (1995), Gwinner & al. (1996), Meeus (1996), Müller (1997), TEAP (1997) |
Use: |
Containers, aircrafts, transportable fumigation chambers |
Target organisms: |
Insect pests, rodents |
Effects: |
See 3.3.3.3 and 3.3.3.4 |
Peculiarities: |
Aircrafts are disinfested against rodents within an exposure time of 24 hours; requires very good sealing and the possibility of repeated filling. Insects, however, have to be exposed to CO2 for about 2 weeks |
Economics: |
See 3.3.3.3 and 3.3.3.4 Aircraft disinfestation: about the same price level as MB but the aircraft will remain grounded for 24 hours instead of 8 hours. Treatment against insects is considerably more expensive because of the long exposure period |
Countries: |
Belgium, Germany |
Sources: |
MBTOC (1994), Bell & al. (1996), Corinth (1996), Meeus (1996) |
Use: |
Shipsship ship and aircrafts |
Target organisms: |
Rodents, fleas (as ectoparasites of rodents ) |
Effects: |
Inhibits the cell respiratory system; very quick action |
Peculiarities: |
Good penetration, but extremely toxic to humans and highly water-soluble. Well-trained technical staff is required for application |
Countries: |
Singapore, Nordic countries |
Sources: |
Hallas & al. (1993), MBTOC (1994) |
Use: |
Shipsship ship, containers, trucks, railcarsrailcar railcar |
Target organisms: |
See 3.3.1 |
Effects: |
See 3.3.1 |
Peculiarities: |
Phosphine is the most widely spread and available fumigant in the world |
Economics: |
Price per tonne depends on fumigated tonnage |
Countries: |
Africa, America, Asia, EU |
Sources: |
MBTOC (1994), Bell & al. (1996) |
Sulfuryl fluoride can be used to control rodents in aircrafts and shipsship ship in countries where its use is approved (the Caribbean, Germany, Sweden, USA) (Kristensen, 1997).
Application: |
N2 is obtained from compressed air. The oxygen concentration must be permanently kept below 1% (maintenance of the atmosphere is required); exposure time: about 14 days |
Use: |
Containers, trucks |
Target organisms: |
Rodents |
Effects: |
N2 replaces the store 's natural atmosphere. The survival of the target pests is prevented by lack of O2 |
Economics: |
Hermetically sealed structures and a gas supply are required, thus this method is considerably more expensive than MB. If a container is not 100 % gastight, continuous N2 supply is required |
Countries: |
Australia |
Sources: |
Banks & al. (1990), MBTOC (1994), Bell & al. (1996) |
Use: |
Shipsship ship, containers, railcarsrailcar railcar, trucks |
Target organisms: |
Stored product insect pests |
Effects: |
See 3.3.6.1 |
Peculiarities: |
Up to now only practised where there is a need to reduce the temperature in order to conserve the commodity; should become more important with the ban on MB |
Economics: |
Expensive because of the high amounts of energy required |
Countries: |
Developed in Germany, used in Mediterranean and sub-tropical countries, Australia, USA |
Sources: |
Maier (1993), MBTOC (1994), Bell & al. (1996) |
Quarantine and pre-shipment treatments are currently not controlled by the MP. The editors of this brochure are convinced, however, that MB use can be reduced in these areas in the medium term without too much economic impact. Four quarantine approaches show a considerable potential for reducing the application of MB:
This approach is promoted, for example, by the Australian quarantine authorities where the focus shifts from end point inspection to a self-regulating systems approach called Certification Assurance (Heinrich & dean, 1994). This quality assurance system is implemented by the exporting industry and should be audited by the quarantine authorities of the countries of origin. This auditing can be expensive and thus create an economic barrier to some exporters in A5 countries.
Obligatory MB fumigation of vegetables prescribed by some importing countries can be replaced by inspection procedures including certification and appropriate treatment in the case of pest detection. In Japan, this approach is already put into practice for certain vegetables and pests and also for cut flowers from the Netherlands. For others, however, MB fumigation is still obligatory, irrespective of whether or not a pest attack occurs. Apples, from Chile and New Zealand and nectarinesnectarine nectarine from New Zealand are also inspected and certified for exportation to the USA (Prospect Consulting, 1997).
In the USA, for example, a Probit 9 statistical standard is required (that means that treatment must kill 99.9968 % of the pests in a test of at least 100 000 organisms). This standard does not take into account variations in the probability of pest presence. For rarely or minimally infested commodities, however, this standard is overly severe. Instead of continuing to enforce the Probit 9 safety standard (which, by the way, was determined by the effectiveness of MB rather than by real quarantine needs), it seems worthwhile to conduct a risk analysis for different commodities and apply appropriate treatment as necessary (USDA, 1997).
Apart from these considerations, a number of the alternatives mentioned above are already being used for quarantine purposes or offer considerable potential for replacing MB treatment. These methods include production in pest-free zones (cf. 3.2.1.1), heat treatment (cf. 3.2.3.2 and 3.3.7), radiation (cf. 3.2.3.7 and 3.3.8), aerosol applications of contact insecticides (cf. 3.2.2.4) and fumigation with alternative gases, especially with phosphine (cf. 3.3.1). Combined treatments will become more important in the future. Physical removal by hand of certain pests on cut flowers, combined with insecticide dips, is approved in the USA. Another promising example is the application of modified atmospheres with a high CO2 content in refrigerated container transit (cf. 3.2.3.5).
Alternative quarantine treatments are already approved and some of them are routine procedures in a number of countries. The US quarantine authorities, for example, have approved 41 alternative treatments for durabledurables durables commodities. Around 90 alternative types of quarantine treatment for perishables are approved in the USA and some other countries.
A systems approach to quarantine security including production, harvesting and packaging practices is considered to be a practical alternative to MB fumigations for fruit and other commodities (Hansen et al., 1997). It can be integrated into existing commercial procedures and is economically advantageous because it does not impose delays in shipment and does not require fumigation equipment.
The following case studies demonstrate well-functioning examples of MB substitution in economically important crops and commodities. Many other cases are well documented in the literature (e.g. MBTOC, 1994; Miller, 1996; Prospect Consulting, 1997).
Rodriguez-Kabana & Martinez-Ochoa (1995) describe how in Colombia, a major cut flower exporting country, production with an alternative IPM system is successfully practised on most of the 4,200 ha used for flower cultivation for several years. It is based on relatively simple methods, but is knowledge-intensive. MB use in horticulture has never been widespread because of high cost and phytotoxicity and the gas was phased out in Colombia in 1996 (Adler, unpublished).
The IPM system for flower production (about 40 types including carnations, rosesrose rose and chrysanthemums ) comprises the following techniques:
Propagative plant material is almost exclusively imported from industrialised countries. Mother plants are propagated under rigorous preventive conditions including in vitro tissue culture.
Wilt-resistant carnation varieties are grown. Some growers are trying to develop new disease- and pest-resisting materials.
Farms have developed individual composting systems in order to replace and enrich soil and suppress diseases. The composition of these composts varies considerably and may include plant residues, cow manure, microbiologically active broths and earthworm cultures. Composting constitutes the major measure against soil -borne diseases, nematodes and insect pests.
Steam sterilisation is used to clean beds, for mother stock production and occasionally in production beds with recalcitrant disease focuses.
Farmers use water for irrigation that is free from disease propagules. Drip irrigation has become widespread as a means of minimising water usage as well as disease and pest occurrence.
Routine monitoring of weather variables, the nutritional status of the soil and the moisture of the plants and the soil is carried out in order to create optimum conditions for plant growth and to avoid stress.
Rotation between carnation and chrysanthemum production is a routine practice.
Entrances to carnation greenhouses are equipped with walk-through ponds containing biocides and lime wells to control Fusarium oxysporum. During composting, measures are taken to avoid the spread of diseases.
Airborne insect pests are monitored with light, pheromone and colour traps on a daily basis. Large bands of coloured plastic strips covered with glue and fine mesh screens keep 85 - 95 % of the insects out of the greenhouses.
Microbiological control agents used include the fungi Paecilomyces lilacinus against the lesion nematode Pratylenchus sp. and Metarrhizium anisopliae against insect larvae in chrysanthemums. Trichoderma and Gliocladium species are applied to suppress Rhizoctonia damage.
Fungicides like tolclofos methyl and metalaxyl against Rhizoctonia and Phoma and insecticides are applied as needed.
Registers of flower beds, are kept in order to trace diseases like Botrytis. Information is stored in computer databases.
The Colombian flower producers made the experience that production systems based on composting and IPM are the most economic ones. They feel that developing new ideas is an essential component to compete successfully in the world market. This is underlined by the fact that the volume and value of Colombian flower exports more than doubled between 1985 and 1993 despite abandoning MB.
A good example of an integrated control strategy without MB was presented by L. Ryan at the Conference on Practical Use of Fumigants & Pheromones in Lübeck, Germany, in 1993. This strategy is based on the knowledge of the pests ' interrelationship with the tobacco processes and targeted at the two major tobacco post-harvest pests (the Cigarette beetle Lasioderma serricornis and the Tobacco moth Ephestia elutella ). The approach is basically preventive and includes:
The monitoring programme includes on-farm storage, auction-house, stemmery, warehousing, manufacturing and distribution channels. It is based on pheromone traps and action thresholds.
Different tobacco types are subject to different levels of infestation and therefore stored separately. Storage facilities are insect-proofed with mesh screens. Low storage temperatures prevent insect development and survival. Clean tobacco does not come into contact with infested tobacco.
Warehouses and processing area s are subject to specific cleaning programmes focused on problem areas. Vacuum tools are usually used for cleaning. Good housekeeping is considered to produce the best infestation control results in processing area s.
Pests present in the tobacco are killed by steam conditioning at 60°C for 3 minutes. Cycle recorders monitor the pest control conditions.
The use of insecticides is only advised when absolutely necessary. Methoprene (an IGR) is used for preventive treatment of tobacco. Processing area s are treated with methoprene, pyrethrins or pyrethroids. Fumigation with phosphine is used as a curative treatment of tobacco.
Alternative IPM tactics, usually specific to a company or location, include freezing, controlled atmospheres, irradiation, Bacillus thuringiensis treatment and mating disruption by pheromones.
In order to conduct this IPM programme, training must be provided at all levels - for tobacco farmers, agricultural extension officers and industrial workers.
Similar strategies have been developed in some cases within the food processing industry. In Canada, preventive pest management includes good manufacturing practices based essentially on surveillance and sanitation, environmental modifications in the facilities that discourage pest insects, pheromone monitoring and sophisticated data collecting and processing including bar coding, spatial analysis and DNA fingerprinting of pests (CPCA, undated).
A new approach towards crop and post-harvest management is required as a result of the phasing-out of MB. While in the past isolated curative treatment was widespread, in future integrated concepts have to be applied which link agricultural production to the respective post-harvest systems. The alternatives presented in this brochure should be seen as elements which may be combined according to the specific situation. In this framework, monitoring and prevention will play a major role. Producers are, however, often reluctant to introduce preventive measures if there is no urgent need or incentive for them. Changing attitudes of the consumers and some companies like chains of supermarkets towards the application of synthetic pesticides may create the necessary pressure for changes in the future.
It must be kept in mind that the different fields of application of MB alternatives are linked to each other. There is, for example, a logical connection between field infestation with storage pests, the quality of commodities, the condition of buildings and transport vehicles and quarantine problems. Treatment of stored products is therefore not always the adequate or only response to a given stored product pest problem. An analysis of bottlenecks in the production and post-harvest system followed by a systematic integrated programme to prevent, detect and control pest problems is the only economically and ecologically sound way to substitute MB.
