4.2 Barbados case study: Harbour, 6th form co-educational secondary school

SCHOOL DESCRIPTION AND GENERAL BACKGROUND:

The school observed is one of the oldest schools on the island. It was established in the early 1700s. Both its past history and its current reputation coincide with the agreement (among parents and educational professionals) throughout the island that Harbour school is the top secondary school in terms of academic results and one of the most difficult schools to gain entry. Harbour school has recently been made a co-educational school (1985). Previously it had been a male-only sixth form school.

Harbour school is co-educational, and is one of only four secondary schools on the island with a sixth form. The school is located in Bridgetown, the capital town of Barbados, but draws its students from all areas of the island. The teaching staff are very well qualified: the majority of the teachers have BA degrees; many have completed the University of the West Indies In-Service Programmes (Certificate or Diploma in Education); some of the teachers have completed MAs; and two teachers have completed doctorates.

Parents of children attending Harbour school are, in the main, highly educated and work in professional and managerial positions (see tables 4.2.1 and 4.2.2).

Table 4.2.1: Paternal occupations of students attending Harbour school

Value Label	Frequency	Percent	Valid Percent	Cum Percent
top managers	11	12.8	16.9	16.9
professionals	21	24.4	32.3	49.2
tech assoc prof	16	18.6	24.6	73.8
clerks	8	9.3	12.3	86.2
service/sales	4	4.7	6.2	92.3
skilled agric/fish	2	2.3	3.1	95.4
crafts	3	3.5	4.6	100.0
no occupation identified	21	24.4	Missing
	86	100.0	100.0

Table 4.2.2: Maternal occupations of students attending Harbour school

Value Label	Frequency	Percent	Valid Percent	Cum Percent
top managers	3	3 .5	4 .7	4.7
professionals	30	34 . 9	46.9	51.6
tech assoc prof	8	9.3	12.5	64.1
clerks	12	14.0	18.8	82.8
service/sales	2	2.3	3 .1	85. 9
skilled agric/fish	1	1.2	1.6	87.5
crafts	4	4.7	6.3	93.8
elementary	4	4.7	6 .3	100.0
no occupation identified	22	25.6	Missing
	86	100.0	100.0

The tables show that over two-thirds of the students have parents working in professional or managerial occupations and only fourteen percent of the students have parents working in skilled, craft and elementary labouring trades.

Entry to the school is extremely competitive. Entry to Harbour school is based on the highest results from the Common Entrance Examination, taken before leaving the primary school. While there is no specific minimum score that must be gained for entry, evidence reported in the Barbados quantitative study (Table 4.1.5) and this case showed a minimum 84%, a maximum 97.5% and an average 91%. Girls who entered Harbour school attained slightly higher CEE scores than boys; the quantitative study showed an average of 90.34 for boys and 91.79 for girls; but this was not a significant difference. It is commonly accepted in Barbados that if a child's CEE score was high enough, then the parental choice of school would be Harbour school. Further, the school is known for its success in the post 'A' level Barbados Scholarship Examination. Students scoring at the top level of this examination would be likely to win national and international scholarships to finance study at the university of their choice.

Harbour school, like its counterparts in Trinidad, is considered an elite or prestige school. Once students enter the school, a democratic equalisation was found to take place among the students. As previously described, within-class and standardised within-class scores across Barbados showed sex and social class performance differences at all other types of schools. Within Harbour school, and similar prestige schools, there were no significant differences found between the attainments of boys and girls in any of the core subjects (English, mathematics and sciences). Similarly, there were no significant differences found between the performance of children of different parental occupations (paternal and maternal) in the core subjects as shown in the raw and standardised scores.

Harbour school was included as a case study because of the high performance of its students. It was also included to provide insights into classrooms where there was no significant evidence of performance differences between boys and girls.

Two classes were selected to be observed within this case study, one class each from second form and fourth form. The fourth form class was composed of high attaining mathematics students and the second form class was composed of mixed ability students. Profiles of the background of the year groups as a whole and these classes are presented below. Parents of children in the second and fourth forms at Harbour school were mainly employed in professional and managerial occupations (Tables 4.2.3 and 4.2.4), and this occupational profile is maintained in the two classes observed (Tables 4.2.5 and 4.2.6). Tables 4.2.3 through 4.2.6 show that the parental profiles of the parents of the case study students in Harbour school are very similar. One further description of the two classes shows that a majority of the students live with both parents.

Table 4.2.3: Paternal occupations of students attending Harbour school

Value Label	Frequency	Percent	Valid Percent	Cam Percent
top manager	3	5.3	6.7	6.7
professional	16	28.1	35.6	42.2
tech assoc prof	16	28.1	35.6	77.8
clerk	4	7.0	8.9	86.7
craft	1	1.8	2.2	88.9
machine operator	4	7.0	8.9	97.8
elementary	1	1.8	2.2	100.0
no occupation identified	12	21.1	Missing
	57	100.0	100.0

Table 4.2.4: Maternal occupations of students attending Harbour school

Value Label	Frequency	Percent	Valid Percent	Cam Percent
professional	6	10.5	11.3	11.3
tech assoc prof	22	38.6	41.5	52.8
clerk	12	21.1	22.6	75.5
service/sales	5	8.8	9.4	84.9
craft	1	1.8	1.9	86.8
elementary	1	1.8	1.9	88.7
unemployed	1	1.8	1.9	90.6
housewife	5	8.8	9.4	100.0
no occupation identified	4	7.0	Missing
	57	100.0	100.0

Table 4.2.5: Distribution of parental occupations for second form students (Percentage by parent in brackets)

Occupation	Father	Mother
Top Manager	1(4.8)
Professional	8(38.1)	4(14.3)
Tech/Assoc/Prof	8(38.1)	9(32.1)
Service/Sales/Clerk	1(4.8)	8(28.5)
Craft	2(9.6)	1(3.6)
Elementary	1(4.8)
Unemployed		1(3.6)
Housewife		1(14.3)

Table 4.2.6: Distribution of parental occupations for fourth form students (Percentage by parent in brackets)

Occupation	Father	Mother
Top Manager	2(8.3)
Professional	8(33.3)	2(8.0)
Tech/Assoc/Prof	8(33.3)	13(52.0)
Service/Sales/Clerk	3(12.5)	6(24.0)
Craft	3(12.5)	3(24.0)
Elementary
Unemployed
Housewife		1(4.0)

The tables above represent a strong bias towards managerial, professional and trained occupations. The researcher was not able to collect information concerning with whom the students lived. We expect that it would be safe to assume that the two classes observed presented a similar profile as that presented in the full survey; 63.4% of students lived with both parents, 25.4% lived with mother only and 5.6% lived with father only.

Students in the classes observed scored very highly on their end-of-term examinations. Table 4.2.7 displays that the class averages for each of the two forms were above 70% on raw end-of-term tests and that the average CEE scores was approximately 90%. The examination and CEE scores were compared between boys and girls for each of the classes. Only in the second form English class was there a difference between the attainments of boys and girls (girls attaining higher than boys, F1,28= 4.811, p<0.037). In mathematics and science there was no significant difference between boys and girls at second form and no differences in any subject at the fourth form.

Table 4.2.7: End-of-term averages for core curriculum subjects and average CEE percentages for second and fourth form case studies

Curriculum average	Form 2	Form 4
English	72.45	70.56
Mathematics	84.27	80.07
Integrated Science Biology	76.17	76.71
CEE average	89.40	91.33

The observer responsible for the Harbour school case study provided the following information. Virtually all of the information is taken direct from observational and reflective notes.

CLASS AND STUDENT PROFILES:

The classes involved in the study were forms 2.1 and 4. 1. Form 4.1 is a very homogeneous group of students who are the highest achievers in the fourth year. They were selected via a rigorous examination, in which they competed for a limited number of places in an accelerated programme in Mathematics (the qualifying mark was 81%). This placement will ultimately lead to the University of Cambridge Advanced level programme which includes Mathematics and Further Mathematics. These students will initially be prepared to write the Caribbean Examinations Council General Proficiency Examination in Mathematics in June 1997, instead of June 1998 when it is written by all other fourth form students. Those students awarded a Grade 1 (the top grade) in the 1997 CXC Mathematics Examination will be enrolled in a programme to prepare for the University of Cambridge (Alternate Ordinary) Additional Mathematics in June, 1998. A grade 'A at that level will then qualify the students to take Further Mathematics as an A' level option. Traditionally, all or most of the students in this accelerated track crown their academic careers at Harbour with a Barbados Scholarship. Since the performance of these students is outstanding in most subject areas, it is anticipated that this class will be no different from its predecessors. All of their teachers agree that these students are highly motivated to do well academically, and are very high achievers. Teachers have described these students with statements such as:

"Most of the pupils in this form will get grade 1 in all the subjects they take in the CXC exam."

"About 75% of the students in this form will get Barbados Scholarships or Exhibitions when they reach upper sixth".

"These children are really keen. They are very competitive amongst themselves".

'It is a pleasure to teach children who are so interested in their work".

"An outstanding group of students".

"What distinguishes this group of students is their level of commitment".

The students in Form 2.1 are of mixed ability. They are all relatively high achievers, however, since they would each have obtained a score that was higher than 86.5% in the Barbados Secondary School Entrance Examination (CEE). These students were randomly assigned to form classes in their first year, and were promoted to second form in the same groups. One student in this form is repeating the second year since he failed to obtain the minimum standard required in the promotion examination (he managed only 46%, and the pass mark was 50%). It must be noted, though, that examinations at Harbour are very rigorous, and it is very likely that this student would have performed much better in another school environment.

The female students in both the second and fourth forms exhibit a higher level of 'maturity' than their male counterparts, but this does not seem to affect academic performance at Harbour. For example, the male students in second form appear to be more playful and there is a tendency to clown around more than the females. In some cases, their responses appear to be flippant and designed for the amusement of the class. Yet, despite the apparent flippancy, there is an underlying brilliance in the responses. In the fourth form, male students seem to be more worried about the perception of the rest of the class than their female counterparts. For example, the male students appeared more embarrassed when they gave an incorrect answer than the female students. Students of both sexes in forms 4.1 and 2.1 were very highly motivated and regarded mathematics to be their favourite subject. Indeed, an overwhelming majority of students in both forms admitted to a decided partiality to mathematics.

Physical arrangements:

Virtually all curriculum subjects were taught in the form classroom. Only 4.1's biology classes were conducted in the Biology Laboratory. The students were taught biology in mixed groups which included students from the other fourth form groups (4.2, 4.3, 4.4 and 4.5). All second form classes, however, were conducted in their classroom and they were taught as a form group.

There was no particular seating pattern in either form for English and mathematics. The students selected their seating places on the first day of each term and they remained in the same location for the remainder of the term. Each student was seated in a chair at a desk. These desks were simply arranged in rows and columns, with boys and girls sitting together as a group. There was no segregation (self-imposed or otherwise) by attainment or sex. In none of the classes observed did the teachers organize group work, so observation of pupil performance was only able to take place in a formal group setting in English and mathematics. In the Biology Laboratory, the students were seated on stools along laboratory tables. They always worked in pairs if they were conducting an experiment. There was no special pattern in the arrangement of the pairs, which included both single-sex and mixed-sex pairs. The students were asked by their teacher to select a laboratory partner at a previous session and they worked in the same pairs for all of their experimental work. For all other work, the students remained with their partners but worked independently.

There was a greater degree of flexibility in the 2.1 integrated science classes than in their English and mathematics classes. During three of these observations, the students remained in their classrooms at their desks while the teacher performed her function didactically. In the other two classes, they were taken to a Chemistry Laboratory where the class conducted some experiments. The limited use of the laboratory for second form science lessons was necessary because of the unavailability of space. The teacher suggested that it would have been highly desirable to have all integrated science classes conducted in a laboratory setting.

Class Attendance:

The attendance was excellent in all the classes observed. There were very few absences from school in either the fourth form or the second form. Approximately 80% of students in form 2.1, and 83% of students in form 4.1 had a perfect attendance record (never absent or late). In all the cases of absence, a letter of excuse was brought by the student.

The teachers:

All teachers in Harbour school were specialists in their particular fields. The mathematics teacher of 4.1 holds a PhD in Mathematics, the English teacher a BA in English and an MA in Education. The biology teacher holds a BA in Biology. All three teachers were trained in the University of the West Indies In-Service Diploma Programme. Likewise the teachers of Form 2.1 all hold first degrees in their respective disciplines (English, mathematics and biology) and were all trained in the In-Service Diploma Programme. With the notable exception of the mathematics teacher of Form 4.1, the teachers were all female.

When interviewed, the teachers admitted that they enjoyed teaching very much. They were all career teachers and, indeed, the English and mathematics teachers of form 4.1 each had over twenty-five years experience in the profession. The 4.1 biology teacher and the mathematics and English teachers of form 2.1 each had over ten years experience. The least experienced of the teachers was the integrated science teacher who had just over six years experience.

THE OBSERVATIONS:

The observations were conducted in these two forms over a period of approximately six weeks; between November (1996) and February (1997). Observations were not continuous because of the intervention of the Christmas holidays. Both students and teachers were briefed about the method and purpose of the observations. The students were observed during their mathematics, English and science classes. Form 2.1 studied integrated science. Form 4.1 studied physics, chemistry and biology as separate disciplines. Since most of the 4.1 students studying biology were in the same group, the science observations were conducted during their biology class. Five observations per curriculum subject area were made for each form class; a total of fifteen observations in Form 2. 1 and fifteen in Form 4.1.

Teaching Style:

It appeared that all the teachers involved in the observations taught in a didactic style; they generally utilised the "talk and chalk" method of instruction. The teachers either lectured to the students and outlined the points made on the blackboard or used questioning techniques and recorded a cross section of the answers on the blackboard. Occasionally, the lessons took the form of class discussion and student responses were recorded on the blackboard. In mathematics classes, the teacher worked examples of problems on the board and explained the methodology to the students. Explanations were frequently given on a one-to-one basis, especially for students who had problems with the concept being taught. No other teaching methods were observed during these sessions. There was hardly any group work but, in spite of this, the students appeared to perform at a very high level.

The English Classes:

4.1 English: In the observations, the teacher skilfully utilised questioning techniques and all the students in the class operated at a very high level of analysis. Both male and female students appeared to be highly motivated and the atmosphere was a very competitive one. All English classes observed with this group involved some element of discussion; these discussions were highly structured and focused toward the teacher. A question would be asked by the teacher and the students would raise their hands if they felt that they could respond. The teacher would then call on a student to answer or to rebut a statement (made either by herself, or by another student). The students were not allowed to speak unless they were standing, and no-one was allowed to comment without being requested to do so by the teacher. Frequently, the teacher would interject a provocative statement which would immediately trigger-off further discussion by the class. Some students (both male and female) appeared to be intimidated by the teacher, and were hesitant in their responses. Generally, though, responses were quite insightful. The students who seemed to be intimidated were the shyer, less confident boys and girls. Most students did participate. (Researcher's Note: After all, this was a homogeneous group and all students were very high attainers.)

In these classes, both male and female students were given many opportunities to express their opinions. On the whole, the females appeared to be more articulate and confident than the males, and were willing to state their opinions and respond to questions even if the answer was wrong. The male students tended to be more analytical and concise in expressing their opinions, whilst the females tended to be more long winded and garrulous. The girls entered into detailed explanations with several examples; trying to impress the teacher with their knowledge. On the other hand, the male students gave the appropriate responses with few, if any, embellishments.

All students seemed to be very well prepared for the classes. Textbooks and other study material were always ready, and homework was usually done. At the end of each class, the teacher would give a passage to prepare or questions to answer. The next lesson began with a discussion of the homework that had been done. The teacher taught English language and English literature simultaneously, using passages from the literature texts for comprehension and for practice in grammar. She used the blackboard a great deal, outlining her main points there as she taught.

Because of structure of this class, it was difficult to observe friendship or other groupings. The teacher was a very strict disciplinarian and the students were not allowed to interact with each other on an informal level. The lessons were rigid and formal. Students appeared to think that they would be punished if they were inattentive. This, however, did not appear to restrict their academic performance or their level of interest in the lessons being taught. The students seemed to enjoy and understand what was being taught. Their oral and written participation reflected this enjoyment. The students were self disciplined and exhibited a very high level of maturity. The students even proceeded with their work if a teacher was absent from school.

2.1 English Class: There was a greater degree of flexibility in this class than in form 4.1. The students seemed to feel very comfortable with their teacher. It was obvious that they respected her, but they certainly did not fear her as appeared to be the case in 4.1. There was a great deal of "chalk and talk" in this class and the teacher made considerable use of the blackboard. In one English literature class, the teacher dictated notes; they were told to learn the notes for homework and that they would be tested on the contents of the notes in the next lesson.

In this class there was a great deal of teacher-student and student-student interaction. In the note giving lesson, for example, it was not uncommon for students to ask each other to repeat something that the teacher had said. Occasionally, the students raised their hands, but generally their questions and comments were of a spontaneous nature. Only one class discussion was observed in this form; it was noisy, with a great deal of student-student interaction as the students supported or rebutted each other's points. This is not to deny that a lot of learning did not take place, since some insightful comments were made about the text being studied. Both male and female students were articulate and uninhibited in their contribution to class discussion, and the teacher encouraged this. The observer attributed the noise level to:

(1) the youthful exuberance of these twelve year olds;

(2) there was more informality in these second form English classes than there was in fourth form;

(3) these students were not being prepared for an external examination - there was less pressure to complete the syllabus.

In her instruction, the teacher tended to lecture and write on the blackboard a great deal. Students either responded to questions orally or they wrote the answers in their exercise books. Occasionally, a pupil was invited (sometimes volunteered) to write the answer on the blackboard. The teacher gave a lot of positive reinforcement to students, congratulating them when they were correct and encouraging them to do better next time if they were incorrect.

A few (not more than five) of the students in this form exhibited some disorganisation in the form of homework not done, a forgotten textbook, or a request to borrow a ruler and pencil. This only occurred on one occasion per student (three girls and two boys), and therefore cannot be regarded as endemic in the group. In each case, the teacher remonstrated with the offender and elicited an apology and a promise to be better prepared in future. No punishment was given by the teacher. The teacher informed me that her approach was developmental rather than punitive. She wanted to inculcate self-discipline and organisation into the children. She confided that she would probably give a detention if the offence was repeated in the near future. The students all seemed to enjoy their English class and it appeared that both male and female students were performing very well.

The Mathematics Classes

4.1 Mathematics Class: This class was taught in the traditional method with the teacher explaining how to work the problem (demonstrating on the blackboard) and then giving the students practice in working similar problems. As the students worked the problems, the teacher walked around the room giving assistance to those students who required it. The students perceived themselves as an elite group and aimed to maintain their academic superiority. Students would co-operate with neighbours frequently, assisting each other if one encountered any difficulty. Both male and female students operated in this manner. I did not observe any differences between the sexes in this respect, since students sitting in the same geographic area seemed to be involved in the interaction. If neither could assist the other, they would ask the teacher, and he would either demonstrate the problem on the blackboard or give students individual assistance. This was the routine in each of the five mathematics classes observed.

Student performance and high achievement was partly motivated by their determination not to be transferred to another mathematics class. These students were very interested in, and serious about their work. They were held in high esteem by teachers and other students, so the pressure on them to perform is great. Some students not in this class were overheard making comments about 4.1's status (at various times). Comments included a mixture of jealousy and awe:

'We can't compete with those 4.1 students. They are nerds."

'Those students in form 4.1 think that they are more important than anyone else".

"I wish I had got a few more marks in the maths exam so that I would be in 4.1."

"I am going to private lessons so that I can do CXC in fourth form. I want to do Advanced Maths, in fifth form." (Researcher's note: Some students, who did not achieve the minimum qualifying mark to enter 4.1, pay for private tuition and sit CXC Mathematics Examination as non-school candidates in fourth form. If they obtain a grade 1, they are allowed to enter the accelerated group in fifth form. They use this method to circumvent the system).

From the observations, the class was performing very well. The sessions were orderly and well structured, but there was a slight 'tinge' of informality as well. The teacher explained the problems and worked them on the blackboard. Both male and female students wrote copious notes about the procedure employed and copied the worked examples from the blackboard into their exercise books. In this class, the male students tended to be more dominant and more confident than their counterparts, answering more questions than the females and showing signs of pride when they were correct. There was much student-student interaction in this class. Students did not seem averse to assisting each other. In all classes, the students were very well prepared. Homework was always completed. It was obvious to the observer that this was a very disciplined group of students.

An interesting strategy was adopted by the teacher. The students were given the answers to the problems beforehand. As they completed a question, the students checked their own work. The teacher later explained that in so doing, he was training the students in self-discipline; no purpose would be served if they forged their answers. He contended that it would be time consuming for him to check answers in class, and that time would be better served either introducing a new topic or doing remedial work if a topic previously introduced was imperfectly understood. He further suggested that the objective was to give practice in problem solving. If there was any difficulty the students could come to him at any time to have it resolved. Apparently, the strategy worked; the students performed very well in the one test that the observer was shown.

In all the mathematics classes observed, the homework (which was sometimes quite voluminous) was always completed in a timely manner. As the teacher walked around the class, he would ask to see the homework that the students had previously done. In this class the level of performance of both male and female students was very high and the students were all very proud of their achievement.

2.1 Mathematics Class: The students in this class were lively. They appeared to enjoy the mathematics classes even though the teacher was a strict disciplinarian and insisted on order and structure. The teacher worked one or more problems on the blackboard, explaining the procedure as she went along. She then gave similar problems to the students to be worked in their exercise books. The female students tended to ask for the teacher's assistance more frequently than the male students did. Even the brighter female students called on the teacher for help more often than the male students.

As they worked, the teacher walked around the class, giving assistance when it was required. Unlike the procedure in the 4.1 group, students were not allowed to assist each other. If a problem was encountered, the student was encouraged to put his/her hand up and the teacher would quickly respond. When asked why she discouraged student-student interaction and assistance, the teacher responded that the form was very talkative and would not necessarily confine the interaction to discussion related to mathematics. She insisted that learning could only occur in a very tightly structured environment.

In this class, students were given the opportunity to showcase their knowledge and understanding of the topic studied. As they completed the work set by the teacher, she would invite someone in the class to come to the blackboard and work a problem and explain the process. If any difficulty was encountered by that student, someone else would be invited to help and complete the problem. In this way, the students had the opportunity to consolidate their own knowledge of the procedure by explaining it to the class. During the five observations in this class, every student was given the opportunity to use the blackboard at least once. Both male and female students seemed to enjoy this type of activity. In most cases, the problems were worked correctly.

Homework was given at the end of every lesson. With very few exceptions, it was completed when the teacher had requested it. The students were generally well prepared for this class and their performance was of a very high standard. Homework was mainly done on an individual basis. The students who were asked suggested that mathematics was not difficult and that very little assistance was necessary. If there was any difficulty with a particular problem the students would discuss it among themselves just before the lesson. If no-one in the form understood how to proceed, the teacher would be asked for assistance. It must be noted that this teacher is regarded by her peers as a specialist in junior school mathematics and most of the students in the accelerated track have been exposed to her teaching at one time or another.

The Biology Class:

4.1 Biology Class: The teaching method was largely traditional with a great deal of 'chalk and talk'. All biology classes in this group were conducted in a laboratory setting, even if experiments were not being conducted. Lectures were the most frequently used method of instruction.

In three of the classes observed, students conducted experiments in pairs. This was the nearest example of group work that was observed in any class. There were eighteen students in the group (ten boys and eight girls) and students had the same partner for each experiment. Some of the partnerships were single-sex and others were mixed-sex. Students selected their partners at the beginning of the academic year and maintained the partners over the year. On one occasion, the teacher gave instructions for the experiment and wrote them on the blackboard and the students then followed these instructions. On the other occasions, the teacher selected the experiments from the students' textbook. As the students did the experiments, the teacher walked around the class giving assistance. The students recorded the findings of the experiments in their laboratory books, and these were collected by the teacher at the end of the lesson. The students appeared to like undertaking experiments. The teacher later reported that the experiments were, on the whole, accurate and that the work produced by this group was of a very high standard. The pairs which comprised two females seemed to work at a slightly slower rate than the ones with a male and a female. The explanation given by the teacher for this phenomenon was that girls were more meticulous than boys and they checked the instructions more often than the boys. This meticulous nature tended to slow them down.

When the teacher was not supervising an experiment, she tended to lecture to the students who remained at the tables in their pairs. As she spoke, she outlined her points on the blackboard. Sometimes she illustrated her point with a diagram, which the students meticulously copied in their exercise books. Sometimes, the students made notes as she spoke, but this was generally the female students who did this. During one lesson, the teacher dictated notes about genetic engineering to the group. Students copied these notes in their exercise books. In this class many male students and a few female students appeared to be bored, and the occasional stifled yawn was observed. From this, the observer inferred that the students preferred a methodology in which they were more actively involved. However, on the whole, the students appeared to like biology, but their level of interest did not seem to be as great as it was in mathematics and English.

The Integrated Science Class

2.1 Integrated Science Class: The teacher of this class was very lively and the students obviously liked her. There was a great deal of informality and student-student interaction in class. As with the other disciplines observed, the traditional methods of note-giving, lecturing and use of the blackboard were generally employed.

On two occasions the students were taken to the chemistry laboratory and simple experiments were conducted. In the laboratory, students were seated on stools at the laboratory tables. The students worked in groups of four and followed the instructions given in the textbook for the experiment after demonstration by the teacher. The teacher explained what she was doing as she worked. The students were permitted to interrupt her with questions. She patiently answered each question. For example, in an experiment 'changing electricity into light', aluminium foil was required. One male student enquired whether something else could be substituted for the foil, eg. wire or string. Another student asked why the size of the foil had to be so exact, i.e. if it could be larger or smaller. It appeared to the observer that the male students asked more questions than the female students; the girls seemed to be more interested in following the procedure in their textbooks and in writing notes as the teacher spoke. The male students paid little attention to the text and watched the teacher's activities very closely. The students then did their experiments in their groups amid much chat and laughter, particularly if an experiment failed. When failure occurred, the group was allowed to repeat the procedure. The students, however, enjoyed these activities and much learning took place. Indeed, some of the male students announced their intention of trying similar experiments at home, and the teacher encouraged this.

The students always seemed well prepared for this class. On the occasions when the teacher requested submission of homework it was always ready. Both male and female students were equally well prepared and the teacher did not appear to distinguish between the sexes in her interaction with the class. In cases where the teacher was in the classroom lecturing to the students, they freely asked her questions if they did not understand a particular point. The teacher took the time to go over the work. The test results indicated that the students learned what they had been taught.

SUMMARY POINTS:

1. This school presents a culture and history of high attainment. All of the teachers had BAs and were trained for teaching and many had higher degrees. Children attending had gained the highest level of CEE passes, and were aware that high levels of attainment would be rewarded with high examination passes and scholarships. Within this culture of high attainment, all students appeared to be self-disciplined and participated fully in school and homework. There were very few differences between the examination performances of males and females and children from different social classes.

2. Teaching was didactic, strongly controlled by the teacher. Teachers showed their commitment to the school and students by their encouragement of all students and no evidence of teacher-less time.

3. All students were active participants; there was no evidence of teacher preference for particular students (by attainment or sex). Their school work and behaviour showed high levels of motivation -including fall submission of homework and virtually no incidents of misbehaviour, bullying or teasing.

4. While there were some differences in the behaviour of boys and girls, there were many instances where they worked together. Where students sat was decided by the students, but there was no evidence of segregation between boys and girls. A number of examples showed boys and girls sharing and discussing information co-operatively. Male and female approaches to class work showed some differences, especially as girls presented longer, more meticulous answers and boys presented short, analytic answers (similar to descriptions of UK students identified by Murphy & Elwood, 1997).

5. The informality of the second form English class brought out the only performance difference between boys and girls; girls were more responsive in class and attained higher scores on their examination.

4.3 Barbados case study: South, single sex, female-only (newer, non-sixth form) secondary school

SCHOOL DESCRIPTION AND GENERAL BACKGROUND:

South school was established approximately thirty years ago, shortly after Barbados gained its independence. South was named after an eminent local educator; it is one of the fourteen 'newer secondary' schools in Barbados. It is one of two female-only secondary schools in Barbados, but will soon be the only one of this type (the government decided (late 1970s) that most secondary schools should be co-educational). The other female-only secondary school is currently being relocated into a new parish (school district); where it will be renamed and made co-educational.

When South was officially opened in 1964, it had a roll of approximately 300 girls, all between the ages of 11 and 12 years, and a staff of 13. Over the years there has been a substantial growth of the school's population and staff. The current roll is approximately 1140 students and the teaching staff is 70.

South is located in Bridgetown. It draws students from all areas of the island. In the quantitative survey of Barbados (chapter 4.1) the occupational profile of the parents of girls attending the school showed a low proportion of professional and managerial positions, similar to the profile of the newer secondary co-educational and the male-only schools. This profile of a low proportion of professional and managerial parents is very different from the profile found in the older secondary co-educational or sixth-form schools. The profile of parental occupations of students attending South school (established in the quantitative survey) are displayed in Tables 4.3.1 and 4.3.2. Of the girls who provided information on paternal and maternal occupations, a majority of the parents worked in crafts and unskilled (elementary labouring) positions.

Table 4.3.1: Paternal occupation of students attending South school

Value Label	Frequency	Percent	Valid Percent	Cum Percent
top managers	2	3.4	6.3	6.3
tech assoc prof	2	3.4	6.3	12.5
service/sales	4	6.9	12.5	25.0
crafts	15	25.9	46.9	71.9
machine operators	4	6.9	12.5	84.4
elementary	5	8.6	15.6	100.0
no occupation identified	26	44.8	Missing
	58	100.0	100.0

Table 4.3.2: Maternal occupations of students attending South school

Value Label.	Frequency	Percent	Valid Percent	Cum Percent
professionals	5	8.6	12.8	12.8
clerks	1	1.7	2.6	15.4
service/sales	8	13.8	20.5	35.9
crafts	6	10.3	15.4	51.3
elementary	19	32.8	48.7	100.0
no occupation identified	19	32.8	Missing
	58	100.0	100.0

When considering the parental occupation profile of students attending South school, it is important to note that most of the girls lived with mother only and there were few fathers present at their homes (Table 4.3.3).

Table 4.3.3: With whom the child lives at South school

Value Label	Frequency	Percent	Valid Percent	Cum Percent
mother only	30	51.7	51.7	51.7
father only	1	1.7	1.7	53.4
both parents	21	36.2	36.2	89.7
grandparents	3	5.2	5.2	94.8
other relatives	2	3.4	3.4	98.3
guardian	1	1.7	1.7	100.0
	58	100.0	100.0

The percentage scores gained on the CEE ranged from 31 to 68.5, with a mean of 45.5. This range and average was, comparatively, better than the boys-only and newer co-educational schools in the quantitative sample, but was substantially lower than the older non-sixth form co-educational and the sixth form co-educational schools.

With regard to the case study carried out at South School, two classes were randomly selected for observation. One class each was observed at second form and fourth form. Choice of these year levels allowed for comparability with the quantitative survey. The second form class had completed a year at the secondary school and should have acclimatised to the routines of the school. The fourth form class was selected to provide information on experienced students and their performance. The second and fourth form classes were composed of mixed ability students. The profile of their paternal and maternal occupations generally matched the profile established in the quantitative survey (Tables 4.3.4 and 4.3.5).

Table 4.3.4: Paternal occupations of the observed classes

Value Label	Frequency	Percent	Valid Percent	Cum Percent
professional	1	1. 8	2.7	2.7
tech assoc prof	4	7.1	10.8	13.5
clerk	5	8.9	13.5	27.0
service/sales	3	5.4	8.1	35.1
skilled/agri/fish	10	17.9	27.0	62.2
craft	4	7.1	10.8	73.0
machine operator	6	10.7	16.2	89.2
unemployed	4	7.1	10.8	100.0
no occupation identified	19	33.9	Missing
	56	100.0	100.0

Table 4.3.5: Maternal occupations of the observed classes

Value Label	Frequency	Percent	Valid Percent	Cum Percent
tech assoc prof	6	10.7	15.4	15.4
clerk	1	1.8	2.6	17.9
service/sales	4	7.1	10.3	28.2
skilled/agri/fish	3	5.4	7.7	35.9
craft	2	3.6	5.1	41.0
machine operator	6	10.7	15.4	56.4
elementary	11	19. 6	28.2	84.6
unemployed	3	5.4	7.7	92. 3
housewife	3	5.4	7.7	100.0
no occupation identified	17	30.4	Missing
	56	100.0	100.0

Further aspects of information concerning the profile of the two classes include: CEE scores ranged from a minimum of 22 to a maximum of 66.5, with an average of 47.3 percent. The girls attending the school lived predominantly (55%) with their mothers only and just over a quarter lived with mother and father (Table 4.3.6).

Table 4.3.6: With whom does the student live?

Value Label	Frequency	Percent	Valid Percent	Cum Percent
mother only	31	55.4	56.4	56.4
father only	3	5.4	5.5	61.8
both parents	15	26.8	27. 3	89.1
grandparents	5	8.9	9.1	98.2
guardian	1	1.8	1.8	100.0
	56	100.0	100.0

There were no significant differences in the students' core curriculum scores due to occupation of father or mother in either of the classes, and there were no significant differences between core scores explained by parents or relations that the student lived with (although there were slightly higher means for girls who lived with both parents).

CLASS AND STUDENT PROFILES:

The description of the school and student background identified that South was a female-only school with its clientele coming from a (mainly) working class background. While the students' CEE scores were similar to the male-only and other newer secondary schools (in the quantitative survey, Table 4.1.5), these scores were significantly lower than those found in the older secondary and sixth form schools. Further, the average within-class scores for the girls who attended South were lower than all other types of secondary school overall and in the specific subjects of English, science and social studies. Observations were undertaken in South during a limited time period, between February and March 1997. Information, therefore is more limited than the previously reported case studies.

Both of the classes selected for study were composed of mixed ability girls. Upon entry to South in the first form, girls were randomly assigned to form classes and these classes remained constant (in the main) throughout the further years in school. All teaching was undertaken in these form classes. As with Harbour school, the second form was chosen because the students had completed a full year in school. The fourth form was selected as it was a pre-examination year and the girls would have made their option choices for CXC examinations. Data was collected from 55 girls.

Class Attendance:

Non-attendance over the last term varied among the girls, from full attendance (nine girls) to thirty days missed (one girl). Average number of days missed in school over the last term was 4.4; girls in the second form missed an average of 3.9 days and girls in the fourth form missed 4.8 days. Lack of attendance was not correlated with attainment in any of the subjects nor was it correlated with parental occupations or with whom the girl lived; it appeared to be a general phenomenon among the girls.

Physical arrangements:

The form classes were taught, mainly, in their form rooms. Seating was very traditional with individual chairs and desks lined-up in rows facing the teacher's desk. Science classes were taught in laboratories and seating was on stools. The placement of seats was physically arranged by the teachers. Within class, though, the student was free to sit wherever she wanted. It was only in rare cases that a teacher restricted a girl's choice of seat. If the teacher believed that by sitting in a particular seat, a student was preventing someone or was being prevented from paying attention during lessons, she would move the girl. Girls tended to sit with friends of similar classroom attainment.

Importance of School Work:

From the observations, the researcher made a number of summary points. She noted that it appeared that many of the students were satisfied with their school work. Satisfied in this sense meant that students were cognizant of their own ability and understood that their attainment (performance) was a result of the amount of effort they were willing to make in school. When classroom results were not as expected, strategies to improve their performance were brought into play. These strategies were mainly information-based as they attempted to gain more information and feedback through interacting with teachers or friends. Thus, students tried to gain assistance by the following means:

teachers are asked to explain farther;
those students who understood the set work were asked to act as mentors and explain to the other students; and
at times, friends or an older brother or sister were asked to assist the particular student.

All of students looked forward to graduating. A number of them told the researcher that their school attendance and studying will help them to achieve their occupational goals.

Homework:

Homework was based on the syllabus dictated by the Caribbean Examinations Council and other examining boards. Homework assignments took various forms, but assignments were due in a specified time period.

The attitude of students in 2.1 to homework was generally positive. A few students did not limit themselves to the homework set. They did additional homework; however, this was not the general rule. Out of a form of 28, six students stated that they did additional homework. These students were identified as the high attainers who consistently did good work in class. Some typical comments made by these high attainers:

"I do a lot of work in school and then, when I go home, I have a lot to do as well."
"Doing this amount of homework cuts down on the time I leave for other things besides school work, but that is OK."

In the fourth year, students were not so concerned about the importance of homework. A number of students told the researcher that homework was necessary but that too much was tiring. Some admitted that they received assistance from older brothers and sisters.

In the second form, students spent on average one to two hours a night doing homework. For the upper school, time spent doing homework generally depended on what was set. The majority of students recognized that homework was necessary for scholastic success. They told the researcher that there were some problems associated with homework. Some complained that the volume of homework set was too great. For the younger students, homework may impact on their 'playing' time. The majority of students stated that they had a weekly time plan for their school work and studied for at least one hour every night.

The students appeared to have a strong sense of self-confidence in school. Most, as previously identified, attended classes regularly and were prepared for class sessions. Absence from classes without permission and failure to do homework were penalized. Students who were inconsistent with the completion of their homework were set detention with the specific purpose of homework completion.

Study Techniques:

The predominant mode of study among the students was independent study (pursuing assignments by themselves). There was little evidence of study or support groups developed by the girls. Second formers told the researcher that they had no particular modes of studying. The fourth formers gave reasons why they studied in groups or alone. Those who liked working alone stated that:

a) they could comprehend better;

b) there are too many conflicting ideas when you work with a group;

c) if forced to work in groups, there is also not enough time to understand what is going on and the weak student suffers as a result; and

d) they experience no annoyance from other students when working alone.

Group study, when it occurred, was usually based on friendship. There appeared to be some insecurity provoked by working with a number of other students; it was threatening if the student was unable to contribute to the group or made mistakes. Only if a student knew her subject matter very well, did she have the security and willingness to act as group leader - to pass on her knowledge to other students in the group. Attitudes to group study and support were varied as shown in the following comments:

'I prefer to be by myself at times, without anyone shouting at me if I do not understand."

'I like to work by myself at times as I prefer to find out things for myself. However it depends on the mood I am in."

'If there is something I do not know then when I join a group, the work becomes easier because I learn from someone in the group who knows."

Thus, there were some students who felt that if they studied in groups:

1) the brighter student could help the weaker ones to understand a difficult problem, and
2) students learn to co-operate and share information.

On the whole, students preferred to work and study by themselves. This attitude to work was probably generated and supported by the didactic nature of teaching in school and lack of teacher supported group work sessions.

Teaching Style:

From the observations, the researcher noted that teachers maintained control of classroom knowledge and behaviour in a didactic fashion. Consistently, their approach to teaching and learning was characterised by 'chalk and talk'; telling students what they need to know, writing information on the blackboard and questioning the whole class to confirm knowledge or to obtain suggestions. Teachers often explained the information for the session and then, in some instances, gave examples. There was some discussion, but this discussion generally confirmed the presented subject matter rather than offering new and challenging insights or approaches. This approach was true for all the curriculum subjects observed. The chalkboard was used in all classes at one time or another.

Teachers sought creative ways to put subject matter across; at times using examples from around them. The researcher attended one science lesson and found herself explaining how 'sugar cakes were made'. When teachers tried to encourage discussion, discussion generally took place between teacher and student rather than among students themselves. At times this discussion was very lively. Teachers tried to encourage a supportive interaction, again this was between the teacher and students rather than among students. Students were given the opportunity to share their knowledge or understanding with the teacher and mediated through the teacher with other students in the class. Teachers tended to refer to this mode of question and answer and sharing information with the class as 'co-operative' although there was little evidence of student-student discussion or structured co-operative learning tasks. Generally, students were not afraid to ask questions of the teacher if they were unsure. They were free to disagree with what the teacher or other students said. All students were given the opportunity to participate by the teacher, and this usually took the form of answering questions and working out problems and answers on the chalkboard (especially in the Mathematics class).

Relationships with the Teacher:

Relationships between students and teachers were generally good. Teachers invited questions from the students. The ensuing teacher-student interaction showed mutual respect rather than fear. Students, whether they were considered high or low attaining were not afraid to ask questions and to tell the teacher if they did not understand a particular topic. The teachers gave guidance at all times. When students didn't understand, the teacher explained.

Students readily took an active part in lessons. They answered questions when asked and sought information where it was necessary to do so. Whether or not a teacher was male or female, the relationship was one which acknowledged that the teacher was in charge of the class. Yet the approach of the teachers encouraged students to feel comfortable.

Pressure to Succeed:

In the second form, students all agreed that they would like to succeed. Yet, observations of and conversations with the students showed that the girls did not have any particular strategies to encourage this success nor did they feel any great need to show that they were succeeding. Their actions with regard to preparation (having a set time-table or programme for extra study) was not evident. The disconnection between ambitions for success and practical strategies may, perhaps, stem from the fact that many of the students had not set any career goals. They were not overly concerned for or had any great passion to succeed. These younger students appeared to think that a decision with regard to career choice would/could be made sometime in the future:

"I do not know what my career will be."
"I hope by the time I am ready to choose my (CXC) subjects, I will know what I want to do."

Even in cases where students at this level suggested careers which they would like to pursue, it did not appear that they were convinced this was the path which they would ultimately take. This absence of self motivation and being unsure of their career path was attributed by teachers to the fact that students came into this school with feelings of insecurity and worry about their ability to succeed (as seen by their relatively low CEE scores and previous examination results that characterised the school). Teachers told the researcher that they had made efforts to inspire students but had a particular problem in trying to dispel student feelings of low self-esteem.

In the fourth year, students felt there was too much pressure being placed on them to succeed. They saw the relevance of coming to school to realise their goals, but did not appear to be sufficiently self-motivated to set high expectations and achieve for themselves. Some students felt that too much pressure was being placed on them to succeed academically and many may not have received academic support from their homes. Students complained:

"There are too many assignments."
"I do not only have to do schoolwork but my mother makes me do other duties as well.
I cannot spend all my time studying."
"This work is too hard."

Friendships among Students:

A small number of students were asked to talk about their friends both in and out of schools. The original intention of these questions was to assess whether friends help one another with school work and social support. Responses identified that friends interacted with each other for a number of reasons including: someone to talk to; someone to help me with homework; someone to share things with; and someone to whom I can tell my problems.

Interestingly, it did not matter whether these friends were male or female. There were no organised support groups for study as found elsewhere. A majority of the girls said that their friends were male! Female friends tended to come from South school. These friends were from across the attainment level. The anomalous finding of so many girls having male friends forced the researcher to pursue some further questions about single-sex and co-educational schools. Comments from the students were not supportive of their school or the choice that had been made that they attend a single-sex school:

"If girls were educated with the boys, then they would get accustomed to them and, when they entered the world of work, working with them would not be strange."

One student stated that when she was at primary school there were boys. Now each time she looks around she sees girls, and she is not that happy with this situation. The call for co-education was a majority view among the girls interviewed. Only a small number of students still believed that their school should remain single-sex.

SUMMARY POINTS:

1. As a female-only school on an island where statistical evidence and social knowledge accepted that girls were attaining at higher levels than boys in school, the performance of girls in South School was at a lower level than would be expected. Teachers attributed low self-esteem as a primary factor to low school performance.

2. The profile of students attending the school showed many coming from a background of parents working in craft and unskilled occupations and many of the girls living with their mothers only.

3. The teaching and learning approaches used in the school were didactic; teachers controlled knowledge and the pace of learning. Communication and discussion rarely took place among the students, but was directed towards and channelled through the teachers.

4. There was little evidence of misbehaviour, although attendance was irregular among a number of students.

5. The 'culture' of the school appeared to support the students in a traditional, paternalistic way. There was little evidence of the encouragement or planning for the students' self-discipline or future development.